Cartesian linguistics
Encyclopedia
The term Cartesian linguistics was coined with the publication of Cartesian Linguistics: A Chapter in the History of Rationalist Thought (1966), a book on linguistics
by Noam Chomsky
, written with the purpose of deepening "our understanding of the nature of language
and the mental processes
and structures
that underlie its use and acquisition
" (ix).
Chomsky wishes to shed light on these underlying structures of the human language, and subsequently whether one can infer the nature of an organism from its language (x).
Cartesian linguistics refers to a form of linguistics developed during the time of René Descartes
, a prominent 17th century philosopher whose ideas continue to influence modern philosophy. Chomsky's book, Cartesian Linguistics, manages to trace the development of linguistic theory from Descartes himself to Wilhelm von Humboldt
, or in other words, directly from the period of the Enlightenment up to the Romanticism
(59). The central doctrine of Cartesian linguistics maintains that the general features of grammatical structure are common to all languages and reflect certain fundamental properties of the mind (59).
Chomsky writes, "one fundamental contribution of what we have been calling 'Cartesian linguistics' is the observation that human language, in its normal use, is free from the control of independently identifiable external stimuli or internal states and is not restricted to any practical communicative function, in contrast, for example, to the pseudo language of animals" (29). "In short, animal 'language' remains completely within the bounds of mechanical explanation as this was conceived by Descartes and Cordemoy" and the creative aspect of language is what separates humans and animals (11).
undertones permeate throughout Cartesian theory and just one example of this is the idea that freedom from instinct and from stimulus control is the basis for what we call "human reason" (14). Weakness of instinct is man's natural advantage, that which makes him a rational being (14). "From this conception of language, it is only a short step to the association of the creative aspect of language use with true artistic creativity" (17). In other words "the "poetical" quality of ordinary language derives from its independence of immediate stimulation and its freedom from practical ends", essentially subject matter which correlates with Cartesian philosophy (17).
thinkers Humboldt
, Goethe, and Herder
to enumerate them as researchers seeking a universal order and to show the tendency of Cartesian thinking to diffuse into several areas of academia (24). Humboldt's effort to reveal the organic form of language (26) is juxtaposed into the context of modern linguistics, like many of the cited experiments, to show the differences between the Cartesian model of linguistics and the modern model, and in order to illustrate the contributions of the former to the latter.
Another aspect of this universality is generative grammar
, a Chomskian approach, which is one finite, ubiquitous aspect of language which provides the "organic unity
" of which Humboldt wrote. Also Humboldtian is the idea that the force which generates language and the force which generates thought are one and the same. (29)
s are often only represented in the mind (a mirror of thought), as opposed to surface structures which are not.
Deep structures vary less between languages than surface structures. For instance, the transformational operations to derive surface forms of Latin and French may obscure common features of their deep structures (39). Chomsky proposes, "In many respects, it seems to me quite accurate, then, to regard the theory of transformational generative grammar
, as it is developing in current work, as essentially a modern and more explicit version of the Port-Royal theory" (39).
and is considered by Chomsky to be a more than suitable example of Cartesian linguistic philosophy. "A sentence has an inner mental aspect (a deep structure that conveys its meaning) and an outer, physical aspect as a sound sequence"***** This theory of deep and surface structures
, developed in Port Royal linguistics, meets the formal requirements of language theory. Chomsky describes it in modern terms as "a base system that generates deep structures and a transformational system that maps these into surface structures", essentially a form of transformational grammar
akin to modern studies (42).
Descartes idea of language as form of self-expression, not merely communication…Modern linguistics hasn't dealt with or rather hasn't fully acknowledged problems raised by Cartesian philosophy. They have been glossed over as unnecessary problems of a generally well-accepted theory.
Another aspect of Cartesian linguistics is the "necessity for supplementing descriptive statements with a rational explanation", in order to strive to progress as a true science (57). Chomsky claims that an excessive rationality and priorism were common to the Enlightenment period and a great, underlying hypothesis to the general nature of language is missing in the Cartesian analysis of deep structure (58).
"Thus prior knowledge and set play a large role in determining what we see" (68)(Cudworth 423-424)
A common idea/perception was that an object/idea could be stamped upon the soul upon the occasion of an idea excited from the comprehensive power of the intellect itself (69). Only Humboldt, who was a living connection between the rationalist Enlightenment and Romantic period, devised the underlying generative system of language perception (71).
Again, Chomsky asserts that "contemporary research in perception has returned to the investigation of internally represented schemata..." (72). The current work of modern linguistics continues the tradition of Cartesian linguistics in transformational grammar.
Chomsky formulates fundamental conclusions of Cartesian linguistics in his studies.
Linguistics
Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. Linguistics can be broadly broken into three categories or subfields of study: language form, language meaning, and language in context....
by Noam Chomsky
Noam Chomsky
Avram Noam Chomsky is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, and activist. He is an Institute Professor and Professor in the Department of Linguistics & Philosophy at MIT, where he has worked for over 50 years. Chomsky has been described as the "father of modern linguistics" and...
, written with the purpose of deepening "our understanding of the nature of language
Language
Language may refer either to the specifically human capacity for acquiring and using complex systems of communication, or to a specific instance of such a system of complex communication...
and the mental processes
Cognition
In science, cognition refers to mental processes. These processes include attention, remembering, producing and understanding language, solving problems, and making decisions. Cognition is studied in various disciplines such as psychology, philosophy, linguistics, and computer science...
and structures
Thought
"Thought" generally refers to any mental or intellectual activity involving an individual's subjective consciousness. It can refer either to the act of thinking or the resulting ideas or arrangements of ideas. Similar concepts include cognition, sentience, consciousness, and imagination...
that underlie its use and acquisition
Language acquisition
Language acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive, produce and use words to understand and communicate. This capacity involves the picking up of diverse capacities including syntax, phonetics, and an extensive vocabulary. This language might be vocal as with...
" (ix).
Chomsky wishes to shed light on these underlying structures of the human language, and subsequently whether one can infer the nature of an organism from its language (x).
Cartesian linguistics refers to a form of linguistics developed during the time of René Descartes
René Descartes
René Descartes ; was a French philosopher and writer who spent most of his adult life in the Dutch Republic. He has been dubbed the 'Father of Modern Philosophy', and much subsequent Western philosophy is a response to his writings, which are studied closely to this day...
, a prominent 17th century philosopher whose ideas continue to influence modern philosophy. Chomsky's book, Cartesian Linguistics, manages to trace the development of linguistic theory from Descartes himself to Wilhelm von Humboldt
Wilhelm von Humboldt
Friedrich Wilhelm Christian Karl Ferdinand Freiherr von Humboldt was a German philosopher, government functionary, diplomat, and founder of Humboldt Universität. He is especially remembered as a linguist who made important contributions to the philosophy of language and to the theory and practice...
, or in other words, directly from the period of the Enlightenment up to the Romanticism
Romanticism
Romanticism was an artistic, literary and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the 18th century in Europe, and gained strength in reaction to the Industrial Revolution...
(59). The central doctrine of Cartesian linguistics maintains that the general features of grammatical structure are common to all languages and reflect certain fundamental properties of the mind (59).
Man vs. Brute
Certain mechanical factors of language function, such as response to stimuli, are evident in both humans and animals; however, Chomsky cites from several 17th century Cartesian experiments which show that the creative aspect of language is specific only to human beings. This is, in essence, the Cartesian theory of language production.Chomsky writes, "one fundamental contribution of what we have been calling 'Cartesian linguistics' is the observation that human language, in its normal use, is free from the control of independently identifiable external stimuli or internal states and is not restricted to any practical communicative function, in contrast, for example, to the pseudo language of animals" (29). "In short, animal 'language' remains completely within the bounds of mechanical explanation as this was conceived by Descartes and Cordemoy" and the creative aspect of language is what separates humans and animals (11).
Freedom from instinct
PhilosophicalPhilosophy
Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational...
undertones permeate throughout Cartesian theory and just one example of this is the idea that freedom from instinct and from stimulus control is the basis for what we call "human reason" (14). Weakness of instinct is man's natural advantage, that which makes him a rational being (14). "From this conception of language, it is only a short step to the association of the creative aspect of language use with true artistic creativity" (17). In other words "the "poetical" quality of ordinary language derives from its independence of immediate stimulation and its freedom from practical ends", essentially subject matter which correlates with Cartesian philosophy (17).
Universality
Chomsky parallels theories of EnlightenmentAge of Enlightenment
The Age of Enlightenment was an elite cultural movement of intellectuals in 18th century Europe that sought to mobilize the power of reason in order to reform society and advance knowledge. It promoted intellectual interchange and opposed intolerance and abuses in church and state...
thinkers Humboldt
Wilhelm von Humboldt
Friedrich Wilhelm Christian Karl Ferdinand Freiherr von Humboldt was a German philosopher, government functionary, diplomat, and founder of Humboldt Universität. He is especially remembered as a linguist who made important contributions to the philosophy of language and to the theory and practice...
, Goethe, and Herder
Johann Gottfried Herder
Johann Gottfried von Herder was a German philosopher, theologian, poet, and literary critic. He is associated with the periods of Enlightenment, Sturm und Drang, and Weimar Classicism.-Biography:...
to enumerate them as researchers seeking a universal order and to show the tendency of Cartesian thinking to diffuse into several areas of academia (24). Humboldt's effort to reveal the organic form of language (26) is juxtaposed into the context of modern linguistics, like many of the cited experiments, to show the differences between the Cartesian model of linguistics and the modern model, and in order to illustrate the contributions of the former to the latter.
Another aspect of this universality is generative grammar
Generative grammar
In theoretical linguistics, generative grammar refers to a particular approach to the study of syntax. A generative grammar of a language attempts to give a set of rules that will correctly predict which combinations of words will form grammatical sentences...
, a Chomskian approach, which is one finite, ubiquitous aspect of language which provides the "organic unity
Organic unity
Organic Unity is the idea that a thing is made up of interdependent parts. For example, a body is made up of its constituent organs, or a society is made up of its constituent social roles....
" of which Humboldt wrote. Also Humboldtian is the idea that the force which generates language and the force which generates thought are one and the same. (29)
Deep structure vs. surface structure
"Pursuing the fundamental distinction between body and mind, Cartesian linguistics characteristically assumes that language has two aspects" (32). These are namely the sound/character of a linguistic sign and its significance. (32). Semantic interpretation or phonetic interpretation may not be identical in Cartesian linguistics (32). Deep structureDeep structure
In linguistics, specifically in the study of syntax in the tradition of generative grammar , the deep structure of a linguistic expression is a theoretical construct that seeks to unify several related structures. For example, the sentences "Pat loves Chris" and "Chris is loved by Pat" mean...
s are often only represented in the mind (a mirror of thought), as opposed to surface structures which are not.
Deep structures vary less between languages than surface structures. For instance, the transformational operations to derive surface forms of Latin and French may obscure common features of their deep structures (39). Chomsky proposes, "In many respects, it seems to me quite accurate, then, to regard the theory of transformational generative grammar
Transformational grammar
In linguistics, a transformational grammar or transformational-generative grammar is a generative grammar, especially of a natural language, that has been developed in the Chomskyan tradition of phrase structure grammars...
, as it is developing in current work, as essentially a modern and more explicit version of the Port-Royal theory" (39).
Summary of Port Royal Grammar
The Port Royal Grammar is an often cited reference in Cartesian LinguisticsCartesian linguistics
The term Cartesian linguistics was coined with the publication of Cartesian Linguistics: A Chapter in the History of Rationalist Thought , a book on linguistics by Noam Chomsky, written with the purpose of deepening "our understanding of the nature of language and the mental processes and...
and is considered by Chomsky to be a more than suitable example of Cartesian linguistic philosophy. "A sentence has an inner mental aspect (a deep structure that conveys its meaning) and an outer, physical aspect as a sound sequence"***** This theory of deep and surface structures
Transformational grammar
In linguistics, a transformational grammar or transformational-generative grammar is a generative grammar, especially of a natural language, that has been developed in the Chomskyan tradition of phrase structure grammars...
, developed in Port Royal linguistics, meets the formal requirements of language theory. Chomsky describes it in modern terms as "a base system that generates deep structures and a transformational system that maps these into surface structures", essentially a form of transformational grammar
Transformational grammar
In linguistics, a transformational grammar or transformational-generative grammar is a generative grammar, especially of a natural language, that has been developed in the Chomskyan tradition of phrase structure grammars...
akin to modern studies (42).
Past and present
Chomsky bridges the past with the present by stating that from the standpoint of modern linguistic theory, the characterization and discovery of deep structures is absurd, in accordance with the present study and quantification of such things as "linguistic fact" and "sound-meaning correspondences"(51). In any case, traditional attempts of dealing with deep and surface structure theory were unsuccessful (51).Descartes idea of language as form of self-expression, not merely communication…Modern linguistics hasn't dealt with or rather hasn't fully acknowledged problems raised by Cartesian philosophy. They have been glossed over as unnecessary problems of a generally well-accepted theory.
Another aspect of Cartesian linguistics is the "necessity for supplementing descriptive statements with a rational explanation", in order to strive to progress as a true science (57). Chomsky claims that an excessive rationality and priorism were common to the Enlightenment period and a great, underlying hypothesis to the general nature of language is missing in the Cartesian analysis of deep structure (58).
"Common notions" {Herbert of Cherbury's De Veritate (1624)}
These refer to the "inborn capacitiies" or a certain "natural instinct" which "instructs us in the nature, manner, and scope of what is to be heard, hoped for, or desired" (Cherbury 132). These latent notions are only activated through an outside stimulus. Chomsky asserts that this focus on innate and psychological doctrine as a precursor to experience and knowledge is typical of Cartesian linguistics (62), along with the requisite of an external stimulus for activation of the doctrine's latent function.Approach to language learning
With this said, "language acquisition is a matter of growth and maturation of relatively fixed capacities, under appropriate external conditions" (64). The 17th century's amenable approach to language learning was very non-conforming, as the overall perception was that knowledge arises on the basis of scattered, inadequate data. Properties conducive to what is learned are attributed to the mind. Theories of perception and learning were essentially the same, though it was an acknowledged difference which would consequently become indistinct during acquisition (67)."Thus prior knowledge and set play a large role in determining what we see" (68)(Cudworth 423-424)
A common idea/perception was that an object/idea could be stamped upon the soul upon the occasion of an idea excited from the comprehensive power of the intellect itself (69). Only Humboldt, who was a living connection between the rationalist Enlightenment and Romantic period, devised the underlying generative system of language perception (71).
Again, Chomsky asserts that "contemporary research in perception has returned to the investigation of internally represented schemata..." (72). The current work of modern linguistics continues the tradition of Cartesian linguistics in transformational grammar.
Chomsky formulates fundamental conclusions of Cartesian linguistics in his studies.