Census in France
Encyclopedia
From the mid-17th until the beginning of the 20th century, French censuses became increasingly more frequent and organized. This article focuses on the purposes of the first census
es (military), how the population was conceived of, and what variables were collected. The main characteristics of included individuals, the data considered important during each period, and the major categories chosen are examined. Also included are the evolution of reasons for knowing the precise age of individuals and how age groups were standardized because these aspects are closely linked to census operations. Censuses have been used to obtain an overview of the population and, during the 19th century, how they were central to the discussion of the decline in fertility
and, more generally, the changes occurring in the French
population.
For a long time, the history of population statistics
has focused on the invention of new arithmetical methods and on the development of the different stages of statistics gathered for the state, such as the quality and precision of vital statistics and what information is included in the censuses. Historians have been more interested in what they could calculate from censuses than the history of specific operations. The purposes of the first censuses and the way the population was conceptualized will be examined because organizing a census seems impossible without dealing with categorization.
In France, as in other European countries censuses, their applications and systematization seem to be linked to the construction of the modern royal state and to what Foucault
(1976, pp. 182–191) has designated as biopolitics. Not coincidentally, census taking rose to an unequalled level in the city of Florence
, which was also the site of Machiavelli’s proposal of rationalization as a method of government. The improvement of the enumeration lists was clearly connected with the instruments developed to serve an orderly administration. However, the remarkable Firenze catasto (cadaster of Florence; 1427–1430) did not include the ages of individual inhabitants among its paramount data. The initial description of 260,000 Tuscans
focused on their property, animals, land, and investments in trade or industry rather than on the composition of their households, household members, and occupations. Age was mentioned only in the description of dependents (Klapisch-Zuber & Demonet, 1972). In the 16th century, when Jean Bodin
presented the arguments in favor of census taking, the age composition of the population was not among his main concerns. A little less than a century later, in his "Note sur le recensement des peuples", Vauban lengthened the list of information that censuses should collect.
Several developments combined to lead to greater precision about age. These included new criteria of what constitutes good administration, calculations of tables d’extinction (life tables) required for the development of insurance and a life annuities system, and new measures for pension payments or admission to hospitals. During the reign of Louis XIV, various enumeration operations attempted to specify the size of the population through small administrative units that counted the number of mouths to be fed during the food shortage of 1693, and through the establishment of a new taxation (a capitation tax) the following year. Population data were kept secret, as elsewhere in Europe. To reveal them would have alerted adversaries about the real size of the country’s military forces in the event of a conflict. Sweden
, however, was more advanced. Beginning in 1749, Swedish clergy in each parish had to provide data relating to vital statistics (baptisms and burials) and the distribution by sex
, age group, marital status, and occupation. In 1762, Wargentin was authorized to publish population statistics, except for the number of inhabitants, which was classified as a military secret. Disclosure of secret information could be considered high treason, punishable by decapitation. Such was the case on May 27, 1780, when a Swiss priest, Johann Heinrich Waser, calculated the population of Zürich
and its canton for the period 1467 to 1748 and published the results. He should have taken more seriously the accusations made by the City Council
against Pasteur Jean-Louis Muret, who, a few years earlier, had used and published data from the 1766 census of Bern (Mols, 1954–1956).
Census
A census is the procedure of systematically acquiring and recording information about the members of a given population. It is a regularly occurring and official count of a particular population. The term is used mostly in connection with national population and housing censuses; other common...
es (military), how the population was conceived of, and what variables were collected. The main characteristics of included individuals, the data considered important during each period, and the major categories chosen are examined. Also included are the evolution of reasons for knowing the precise age of individuals and how age groups were standardized because these aspects are closely linked to census operations. Censuses have been used to obtain an overview of the population and, during the 19th century, how they were central to the discussion of the decline in fertility
Fertility
Fertility is the natural capability of producing offsprings. As a measure, "fertility rate" is the number of children born per couple, person or population. Fertility differs from fecundity, which is defined as the potential for reproduction...
and, more generally, the changes occurring in the French
French people
The French are a nation that share a common French culture and speak the French language as a mother tongue. Historically, the French population are descended from peoples of Celtic, Latin and Germanic origin, and are today a mixture of several ethnic groups...
population.
For a long time, the history of population statistics
Population statistics
Population statistics is the use of statistics to analyze characteristics or changes to a population. It is related to social demography and demography.Population statistics can analyze anything from global demographic changes to local small scale changes...
has focused on the invention of new arithmetical methods and on the development of the different stages of statistics gathered for the state, such as the quality and precision of vital statistics and what information is included in the censuses. Historians have been more interested in what they could calculate from censuses than the history of specific operations. The purposes of the first censuses and the way the population was conceptualized will be examined because organizing a census seems impossible without dealing with categorization.
In France, as in other European countries censuses, their applications and systematization seem to be linked to the construction of the modern royal state and to what Foucault
Michel Foucault
Michel Foucault , born Paul-Michel Foucault , was a French philosopher, social theorist and historian of ideas...
(1976, pp. 182–191) has designated as biopolitics. Not coincidentally, census taking rose to an unequalled level in the city of Florence
Florence
Florence is the capital city of the Italian region of Tuscany and of the province of Florence. It is the most populous city in Tuscany, with approximately 370,000 inhabitants, expanding to over 1.5 million in the metropolitan area....
, which was also the site of Machiavelli’s proposal of rationalization as a method of government. The improvement of the enumeration lists was clearly connected with the instruments developed to serve an orderly administration. However, the remarkable Firenze catasto (cadaster of Florence; 1427–1430) did not include the ages of individual inhabitants among its paramount data. The initial description of 260,000 Tuscans
Tuscany
Tuscany is a region in Italy. It has an area of about 23,000 square kilometres and a population of about 3.75 million inhabitants. The regional capital is Florence ....
focused on their property, animals, land, and investments in trade or industry rather than on the composition of their households, household members, and occupations. Age was mentioned only in the description of dependents (Klapisch-Zuber & Demonet, 1972). In the 16th century, when Jean Bodin
Jean Bodin
Jean Bodin was a French jurist and political philosopher, member of the Parlement of Paris and professor of law in Toulouse. He is best known for his theory of sovereignty; he was also an influential writer on demonology....
presented the arguments in favor of census taking, the age composition of the population was not among his main concerns. A little less than a century later, in his "Note sur le recensement des peuples", Vauban lengthened the list of information that censuses should collect.
Several developments combined to lead to greater precision about age. These included new criteria of what constitutes good administration, calculations of tables d’extinction (life tables) required for the development of insurance and a life annuities system, and new measures for pension payments or admission to hospitals. During the reign of Louis XIV, various enumeration operations attempted to specify the size of the population through small administrative units that counted the number of mouths to be fed during the food shortage of 1693, and through the establishment of a new taxation (a capitation tax) the following year. Population data were kept secret, as elsewhere in Europe. To reveal them would have alerted adversaries about the real size of the country’s military forces in the event of a conflict. Sweden
Sweden
Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund....
, however, was more advanced. Beginning in 1749, Swedish clergy in each parish had to provide data relating to vital statistics (baptisms and burials) and the distribution by sex
Sex
In biology, sex is a process of combining and mixing genetic traits, often resulting in the specialization of organisms into a male or female variety . Sexual reproduction involves combining specialized cells to form offspring that inherit traits from both parents...
, age group, marital status, and occupation. In 1762, Wargentin was authorized to publish population statistics, except for the number of inhabitants, which was classified as a military secret. Disclosure of secret information could be considered high treason, punishable by decapitation. Such was the case on May 27, 1780, when a Swiss priest, Johann Heinrich Waser, calculated the population of Zürich
Zürich
Zurich is the largest city in Switzerland and the capital of the canton of Zurich. It is located in central Switzerland at the northwestern tip of Lake Zurich...
and its canton for the period 1467 to 1748 and published the results. He should have taken more seriously the accusations made by the City Council
City council
A city council or town council is the legislative body that governs a city, town, municipality or local government area.-Australia & NZ:Because of the differences in legislation between the States, the exact definition of a City Council varies...
against Pasteur Jean-Louis Muret, who, a few years earlier, had used and published data from the 1766 census of Bern (Mols, 1954–1956).