Chachapoyas culture
Encyclopedia
The Chachapoyas, also called the Warriors of the Clouds, were an Andean people living in the cloud forests of the Amazonas region
of present-day Peru
. The Incas conquered their civilization shortly before the arrival of the Spanish in Peru. When the Spanish arrived in Peru in the 16th century, the Chachapoyas were one of the many nations ruled by the Inca Empire
. Their incorporation into the Inca Empire had not been easy, due to their constant resistance to the Inca troops.
Since the Incas and the Spanish conquistadors were the principal sources of information on the Chachapoyas, there is little first-hand or contrasting knowledge of the Chachapoyas. Writings by the major chroniclers of the time, such as El Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, were based on fragmentary second-hand accounts. Much of what we do know about the Chachapoyas culture is based on archaeological evidence from ruins, pottery, tombs and other artifacts.
The chronicler Pedro Cieza de León
offers some picturesque notes about the Chachapoyas:
Cieza adds that, after their annexation to the Inca Empire, they adopted customs imposed by the Cuzco
-based Inca.
The name Chachapoya is in fact the name that was given to this culture by the Inca; the name that these people may have actually used to refer to themselves is not known. The meaning of the word Chachapoyas may have been derived from sacha-p-collas, the equivalent of "colla people who live in the woods
" (sacha = wild p = of the colla = nation in which Aymara
is spoken). Some believe the word is a variant of the Quechua construction sacha puya, or People of the Clouds.
The Chachapoyas' territory was located in the northern regions of the Andes in present-day Peru. It encompassed the triangular region formed by the confluence of the rivers Marañón
and Utcubamba
in the zone of Bagua
, up to the basin of the Abiseo river, where the ruins of Pajáten
are located. This territory also included land to the south up to the Chontayacu River, exceeding the limits of the current department of Amazonas
towards the south. But the center of the Chachapoyas culture was the basin of the Utcubamba River
. Due to the great size of the Marañón river and the surrounding mountainous terrain, the region was relatively isolated from the coast and other areas of Peru, although there is archaeological evidence of some interaction between the Chachapoyas and other cultures.
The contemporary Peruvian city of Chachapoyas derives its name from the word for this ancient culture as does the defined architectural style. Garcilaso de la Vega
noted that the Chachapoyas territory was so extensive that
(The league
was a measurement of about 5 km (3.1 mi).)
The area of the Chachapoyas is sometimes referred to as the Amazonian Andes, due to
it being part of a mountain range
covered by dense tropical woods
. The Amazonian Andes constitute the eastern flank of the Andes
, which were once covered by dense Amazon vegetation. The region extended from the cordillera
spurs up to altitudes where primary forests still stand, usually above 3500 m. The cultural realm of the Amazonian Andes occupied land situated between 2000 and 3000 m altitude.
According to the analysis of the Chachapoyas objects made by the Antisuyo expeditions of the Amazon Archaeology Institute, the Chachapoyas do not exhibit Amazon cultural tradition but one more closely resembling an Andean one. Given that the terrain facilitates peripatric speciation
, as evidenced by the high biodiversity
of the Andean region, the physical attributes of the Chachapoyas are most likely reflecting founder effect
s, assortative mating
, and/or related phenomena in an initially small population sharing a relatively recent common ancestor with other Amerind
groups.
The anthropomorphous
sarcophagi
resemble imitations of funeral bundle
s provided with wooden masks typical of the Horizonte Medio, a dominant culture on the coast and highlands, also known as the Tiahuanaco
–Huari
or Wari
culture. The "mausoleum
s" may be modified forms of the chullpa
or pucullo
, elements of funeral architecture observed throughout the Andes, especially in the Tiahuanaco
and Huari
cultures.
Population expansion into the Amazonian Andes seems to have been driven by the desire to expand agrarian
land, as evidenced by extensive terracing throughout the region. The agricultural environments of both the Andes and the coastal region
, characterized by its extensive desert areas and limited soil suitable for farming, became insufficient for sustaining a population like the ancestral Peruvians, which had grown
for 3000 years.
This theory has been described as "mountainization of the rain forest" for both geographical and cultural reasons: first, after the fall of the tropical forests, the scenery of the Amazonian Andes changed to resemble the barren mountains of the Andes; second, the people who settled there brought their Andean culture with them. This phenomenon, which still occurs today, was repeated in the southern Amazonian Andes during the Inca Empire
, which projected into the mountainous
zone of Vilcabamba
, raising examples of Inca architecture such as Machu Picchu
.
took place, according to Garcilaso
, during the government of Tupac Inca Yupanqui
in the second half of the 15th century. He recounts that the warlike actions began in Pias, a community on a mountain on the edge of Chachapoyas territory likely to the southwest of Gran Pajáten
.
According to de la Vega, the Chachapoyas anticipated an Inca incursion and began preparations to withstand it at least two years earlier. The chronicle of Cieza
also documents Chachapoya resistance. During the time of Huayna Capac
's regime, the Chachapoyas rebelled:
In response, Huayna Capac
, who was in the Ecuador
ian cañaris
land at the time, sent messengers to negotiate peace. But again, the Chachapoyas "punished the messengers (...) and threatened them with death". Huayna Capac then ordered an attack. He crossed the Marañón River
over a bridge of wooden rafts that he ordered to be built probably near Balsas, next to Celendín
.
From here, Inca troops proceeded to Cajamarquilla
(Bolivar
), with the intention of destroying "one of the principal towns" of the 'Chachapoyas. From Cajamarquilla
, a delegation of women came to meet them, led by a matron who was a former concubine of Tupac Inca Yupanqui. They asked for mercy and forgiveness, which the Inca granted them. In memory of this event of a peace agreement, the place where the negotiation had taken place was declared sacred and closed so from now on "neither men nor animals, nor even birds, if it were possible, would put their feet in it."
To assure the pacification of the Chachapoyas, the Incas installed garrisons in the region. They also arranged the transfer of groups of villagers under the system of mitmac, or forced resettlement:
The Inca presence in the territory of Chachapoyas
left structures at Cochabamba
in the outskirts of Utcubamba
in the current district of Leimebamba as well as other sites.
The architectural model of the Chachapoyas is characterized by circular stone constructions as well as raised platforms constructed on slopes. Their walls were sometimes decorated with symbolic figures. Some structures such as the monumental fortress of Kuelap
and the ruins of Cerro Olán are prime examples of this architectural style.
Chachapoyan constructions may date to the 9th or 10th century; this architectural tradition still thrived at the time of the arrival of the Spanish
until the latter part of the 16th century. To be sure, the Incas introduced their own style after conquering the Chachapoyas, such as in the case of the ruins of Cochabamba in the district of Leimebamba
.
The presence of two funeral patterns is also typical of the Chachapoyas culture. One is represented by sarcophagi
, placed vertically and located in caves that were excavated at the highest point of precipices. The other funeral pattern was groups of mausoleum
s constructed like tiny houses located in caves worked into cliffs.
Chachapoyan handmade ceramics did not reach the technological level of the Mochica
or Nazca
cultures. Their small pitchers
are frequently decorated by cordoned motifs. As for textile art
, clothes were generally colored in red. A monumental textile from the precincts of Pajáten
had been painted with figures of birds. The Chachapoyas also used to paint their walls, as an extant sample in San Antonio
, province of Luya
, reveals. These walls represent stages of a ritual dance of couples holding hands.
and Gran Pajáten
, may have developed as a defensive measure against the Huari, a Middle Horizon
culture that covered much of the coast and highlands.
In the fifteenth century, the Inca empire expanded to incorporate the Chachapoyas region. Although fortifications such as the citadel at Kuélap may have been an adequate defense against the invading Inca, it is possible that by this time the Chachapoyas settlements had become decentralized and fragmented after the threat of Huari invasion had dissipated. The Chachapoyas were conquered by Inca ruler Tupac Inca Yupanqui
around AD 1475. The defeat of the Chachapoyas was fairly swift; however, smaller rebellions continued for many years. Using the mitmac system of ethnic dispersion, the Inca attempted to quell these rebellions by forcing large numbers of Chachapoya people to resettle in remote locations of the empire.
When civil war broke out within the Inca empire, the Chachapoyas were located on middle ground between the northern capital at Quito
, ruled by the Inca Atahualpa
, and the southern capital at Cuzco
, ruled by Atahualpa's brother Huáscar
. Many of the Chachapoyas were conscripted into Huáscar's army, and heavy casualties ensued. After Atahualpa's eventual victory, many more of the Chachapoyas were executed or deported due to their former allegiance with Huáscar.
It was due to the harsh treatment of the Chachapoyas during the years of subjugation that many of the Chachapoyas initially chose to side with the Spanish colonialists when they arrived in Peru. Guaman, a local ruler from Cochabamba
, pledged his allegiance to the conquistador Francisco Pizarro
after the capture of Atahualpa in Cajamarca
. The Spanish moved in and occupied Cochabamba, extorting what riches they could find from the local inhabitants.
During Inca Manco Cápac
's rebellion against the Spanish, his emissaries enlisted the help of a group of Chachapoyas. However, Guaman's supporters remained loyal to the Spanish. By 1547, a large faction of Spanish soldiers arrived in the city of Chachapoyas
, effectively ending the Chachapoyas' independence. Residents were relocated to Spanish-style towns, often with members of several different ayllu
occupying the same settlement. Disease, poverty, and attrition led to severe decreases in population; by some accounts the population of the Chachapoyas region decreased by 90% over the course of 200 years after the arrival of the Spanish.
, with more than four hundred interior buildings and massive exterior stone walls reaching upwards of 60 feet in height, possibly to defend against the Huari around 800 AD. Referred to as the 'Machu Picchu
of the north,' Kuélap receives few visitors due to its remote location.
Archaeological sites in the region include the settlement of Gran Pajáten
, Gran Saposoa
, the Atumpucro complex, and the burial sites at Revash
and Laguna de los Condores (Lake of the Condors), among many others.
by Clive Cussler
. The opening scene of the adventure film Raiders of the Lost Ark
involves a fictionalised Chachapoyan temple, which Indiana Jones explores in order to find a distinctive Golden Idol
, uncovering many deadly traps along the way.
Amazonas Region
Amazonas is a department of northern Peru bordered by Ecuador on the north and west, Cajamarca Department on the west, La Libertad Department on the south, and Loreto Department and San Martín Department on the east. Its capital is the city of Chachapoyas....
of present-day Peru
Peru
Peru , officially the Republic of Peru , is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean....
. The Incas conquered their civilization shortly before the arrival of the Spanish in Peru. When the Spanish arrived in Peru in the 16th century, the Chachapoyas were one of the many nations ruled by the Inca Empire
Inca Empire
The Inca Empire, or Inka Empire , was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cusco in modern-day Peru. The Inca civilization arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in the early 13th century...
. Their incorporation into the Inca Empire had not been easy, due to their constant resistance to the Inca troops.
Since the Incas and the Spanish conquistadors were the principal sources of information on the Chachapoyas, there is little first-hand or contrasting knowledge of the Chachapoyas. Writings by the major chroniclers of the time, such as El Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, were based on fragmentary second-hand accounts. Much of what we do know about the Chachapoyas culture is based on archaeological evidence from ruins, pottery, tombs and other artifacts.
The chronicler Pedro Cieza de León
Pedro Cieza de León
Pedro Cieza de León was a Spanish conquistador and chronicler of Peru. He is known primarily for his history and description of Peru, Crónicas del Perú...
offers some picturesque notes about the Chachapoyas:
Cieza adds that, after their annexation to the Inca Empire, they adopted customs imposed by the Cuzco
Cusco Region
Cusco is a region in Peru. It is bordered by the Ucayali Region on the north; the Madre de Dios and Puno regions on the east; the Arequipa Region on the south; and the Apurímac, Ayacucho and Junín regions on the west...
-based Inca.
The name Chachapoya is in fact the name that was given to this culture by the Inca; the name that these people may have actually used to refer to themselves is not known. The meaning of the word Chachapoyas may have been derived from sacha-p-collas, the equivalent of "colla people who live in the woods
Forest
A forest, also referred to as a wood or the woods, is an area with a high density of trees. As with cities, depending where you are in the world, what is considered a forest may vary significantly in size and have various classification according to how and what of the forest is composed...
" (sacha = wild p = of the colla = nation in which Aymara
Aymara language
Aymara is an Aymaran language spoken by the Aymara people of the Andes. It is one of only a handful of Native American languages with over three million speakers. Aymara, along with Quechua and Spanish, is an official language of Peru and Bolivia...
is spoken). Some believe the word is a variant of the Quechua construction sacha puya, or People of the Clouds.
Geography
Marañón River
The Marañón River rises about 160 km to the northeast of Lima, Peru, flows through a deeply-eroded Andean valley in a northwesterly direction, along the eastern base of the Cordillera of the Andes, as far as 5 degrees 36' southern latitude; then it makes a great bend to the northeast, and...
and Utcubamba
Utcubamba River
The Utcubamba River is a river in the Amazonas Region of Peru, located at . The river's name is Quechua for "cotton fields".The Utcubamba River originates in the highlands of the central cordillera, then flows north through Amazonas before joining the Marañón River...
in the zone of Bagua
Bagua Province
Bagua is a province of the Amazonas Region in Peru. It is located in the north and central part of the department of Amazonas. Its territory is rugged in all its extension. It is also cut by deep gorges that have been formed by the important rivers that cross this province, as well as their...
, up to the basin of the Abiseo river, where the ruins of Pajáten
Gran Pajáten
Gran Pajatén is an archaeological site located in the Andean cloud forests of Peru, on the border of the La Libertad region and the San Martín region, between the Marañon and Huallaga rivers. The archaeological site lies in the Rio Abiseo National Park, which was established in 1983. The park was...
are located. This territory also included land to the south up to the Chontayacu River, exceeding the limits of the current department of Amazonas
Amazonas Region
Amazonas is a department of northern Peru bordered by Ecuador on the north and west, Cajamarca Department on the west, La Libertad Department on the south, and Loreto Department and San Martín Department on the east. Its capital is the city of Chachapoyas....
towards the south. But the center of the Chachapoyas culture was the basin of the Utcubamba River
Utcubamba River
The Utcubamba River is a river in the Amazonas Region of Peru, located at . The river's name is Quechua for "cotton fields".The Utcubamba River originates in the highlands of the central cordillera, then flows north through Amazonas before joining the Marañón River...
. Due to the great size of the Marañón river and the surrounding mountainous terrain, the region was relatively isolated from the coast and other areas of Peru, although there is archaeological evidence of some interaction between the Chachapoyas and other cultures.
The contemporary Peruvian city of Chachapoyas derives its name from the word for this ancient culture as does the defined architectural style. Garcilaso de la Vega
Inca Garcilaso de la Vega
Garcilaso de la Vega , born Gómez Suárez de Figueroa, was a historian and writer from the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru. The son of a Spanish conquistador and an Inca noblewoman, he is recognized primarily for his contributions to Inca history, culture, and society...
noted that the Chachapoyas territory was so extensive that
(The league
League (unit)
A league is a unit of length . It was long common in Europe and Latin America, but it is no longer an official unit in any nation. The league originally referred to the distance a person or a horse could walk in an hour...
was a measurement of about 5 km (3.1 mi).)
The area of the Chachapoyas is sometimes referred to as the Amazonian Andes, due to
it being part of a mountain range
Mountain range
A mountain range is a single, large mass consisting of a succession of mountains or narrowly spaced mountain ridges, with or without peaks, closely related in position, direction, formation, and age; a component part of a mountain system or of a mountain chain...
covered by dense tropical woods
Forest
A forest, also referred to as a wood or the woods, is an area with a high density of trees. As with cities, depending where you are in the world, what is considered a forest may vary significantly in size and have various classification according to how and what of the forest is composed...
. The Amazonian Andes constitute the eastern flank of the Andes
Andes
The Andes is the world's longest continental mountain range. It is a continual range of highlands along the western coast of South America. This range is about long, about to wide , and of an average height of about .Along its length, the Andes is split into several ranges, which are separated...
, which were once covered by dense Amazon vegetation. The region extended from the cordillera
Cordillera
A cordillera is an extensive chain of mountains or mountain ranges, that runs along a coastline . It comes from the Spanish word cordilla, which is a diminutive of cuerda, or "cord"...
spurs up to altitudes where primary forests still stand, usually above 3500 m. The cultural realm of the Amazonian Andes occupied land situated between 2000 and 3000 m altitude.
Origin of the Chachapoyas
Accounts such as that of Cieza de León indicate that the Chachapoyas had lighter skin than other South American peoples and blond hair. This poses an enduring mystery for scholars of the region as to their ultimate origin.According to the analysis of the Chachapoyas objects made by the Antisuyo expeditions of the Amazon Archaeology Institute, the Chachapoyas do not exhibit Amazon cultural tradition but one more closely resembling an Andean one. Given that the terrain facilitates peripatric speciation
Peripatric speciation
Peripatric and peripatry are terms from biogeography, referring to organisms whose ranges are closely adjacent but do not overlap, being separated where these organisms do not occur – for example a wide river or a mountain range. Such organisms are usually closely related Peripatric and...
, as evidenced by the high biodiversity
Biodiversity
Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life forms within a given ecosystem, biome, or an entire planet. Biodiversity is a measure of the health of ecosystems. Biodiversity is in part a function of climate. In terrestrial habitats, tropical regions are typically rich whereas polar regions...
of the Andean region, the physical attributes of the Chachapoyas are most likely reflecting founder effect
Founder effect
In population genetics, the founder effect is the loss of genetic variation that occurs when a new population is established by a very small number of individuals from a larger population. It was first fully outlined by Ernst Mayr in 1942, using existing theoretical work by those such as Sewall...
s, assortative mating
Assortative mating
Assortative mating , and the related concept Disassortative mating, is the phenomenon where a sexually reproducing organism chooses to mate with individuals that are similar or dissimilar to itself in some specific manner...
, and/or related phenomena in an initially small population sharing a relatively recent common ancestor with other Amerind
Amerind
Amerind may refer to:* Amerind peoples, neologism for Indigenous peoples of the Americas* Amerind Foundation, a non-profit, museum and archaeological research facility* Amerind languages, putative higher-level language family...
groups.
The anthropomorphous
Anthropomorphism
Anthropomorphism is any attribution of human characteristics to animals, non-living things, phenomena, material states, objects or abstract concepts, such as organizations, governments, spirits or deities. The term was coined in the mid 1700s...
sarcophagi
Sarcophagus
A sarcophagus is a funeral receptacle for a corpse, most commonly carved or cut from stone. The word "sarcophagus" comes from the Greek σαρξ sarx meaning "flesh", and φαγειν phagein meaning "to eat", hence sarkophagus means "flesh-eating"; from the phrase lithos sarkophagos...
resemble imitations of funeral bundle
Funeral bundle
A funeral bundle is a method of enclosing a corpse before burial, practiced by the Paracas culture of the Peruvian Andes. The well-preserved funeral bundles of the Paracas have allowed archaeologists to study their funeral rituals in detail....
s provided with wooden masks typical of the Horizonte Medio, a dominant culture on the coast and highlands, also known as the Tiahuanaco
Tiwanaku
Tiwanaku, is an important Pre-Columbian archaeological site in western Bolivia, South America. Tiwanaku is recognized by Andean scholars as one of the most important precursors to the Inca Empire, flourishing as the ritual and administrative capital of a major state power for approximately five...
–Huari
Huari Culture
The Wari were a Middle Horizon civilization that flourished in the south-central Andes and coastal area of modern-day Peru, from about CE 500 to 1000...
or Wari
Huari Culture
The Wari were a Middle Horizon civilization that flourished in the south-central Andes and coastal area of modern-day Peru, from about CE 500 to 1000...
culture. The "mausoleum
Mausoleum
A mausoleum is an external free-standing building constructed as a monument enclosing the interment space or burial chamber of a deceased person or persons. A monument without the interment is a cenotaph. A mausoleum may be considered a type of tomb or the tomb may be considered to be within the...
s" may be modified forms of the chullpa
Chullpa
A chullpa is an ancient Aymara funerary tower originally constructed for a noble person or noble family. The tallest are about 12m high. The tombs at Sillustani are most famous, but chullpas are found across the Altiplano in Peru and Bolivia...
or pucullo
Chullpa
A chullpa is an ancient Aymara funerary tower originally constructed for a noble person or noble family. The tallest are about 12m high. The tombs at Sillustani are most famous, but chullpas are found across the Altiplano in Peru and Bolivia...
, elements of funeral architecture observed throughout the Andes, especially in the Tiahuanaco
Tiwanaku
Tiwanaku, is an important Pre-Columbian archaeological site in western Bolivia, South America. Tiwanaku is recognized by Andean scholars as one of the most important precursors to the Inca Empire, flourishing as the ritual and administrative capital of a major state power for approximately five...
and Huari
Huari Culture
The Wari were a Middle Horizon civilization that flourished in the south-central Andes and coastal area of modern-day Peru, from about CE 500 to 1000...
cultures.
Population expansion into the Amazonian Andes seems to have been driven by the desire to expand agrarian
Agriculture
Agriculture is the cultivation of animals, plants, fungi and other life forms for food, fiber, and other products used to sustain life. Agriculture was the key implement in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the...
land, as evidenced by extensive terracing throughout the region. The agricultural environments of both the Andes and the coastal region
Chala
The Chala or "Coast" is one of the eight natural regions in Peru. It is formed by all the western lands that arise from sea level up to the height of 500 meters....
, characterized by its extensive desert areas and limited soil suitable for farming, became insufficient for sustaining a population like the ancestral Peruvians, which had grown
Population growth
Population growth is the change in a population over time, and can be quantified as the change in the number of individuals of any species in a population using "per unit time" for measurement....
for 3000 years.
This theory has been described as "mountainization of the rain forest" for both geographical and cultural reasons: first, after the fall of the tropical forests, the scenery of the Amazonian Andes changed to resemble the barren mountains of the Andes; second, the people who settled there brought their Andean culture with them. This phenomenon, which still occurs today, was repeated in the southern Amazonian Andes during the Inca Empire
Inca Empire
The Inca Empire, or Inka Empire , was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cusco in modern-day Peru. The Inca civilization arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in the early 13th century...
, which projected into the mountainous
Mountain range
A mountain range is a single, large mass consisting of a succession of mountains or narrowly spaced mountain ridges, with or without peaks, closely related in position, direction, formation, and age; a component part of a mountain system or of a mountain chain...
zone of Vilcabamba
Vilcabamba, Peru
Vilcabamba was a city founded by Manco Inca in 1539 and was the last refuge of the Inca Empire until it fell to the Spaniards in 1572, signaling the end of Inca resistance to Spanish rule.- History :...
, raising examples of Inca architecture such as Machu Picchu
Machu Picchu
Machu Picchu is a pre-Columbian 15th-century Inca site located above sea level. It is situated on a mountain ridge above the Urubamba Valley in Peru, which is northwest of Cusco and through which the Urubamba River flows. Most archaeologists believe that Machu Picchu was built as an estate for...
.
Inca occupation and forced resettlement
The conquest of the Chachapoyas by the IncasInca Empire
The Inca Empire, or Inka Empire , was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cusco in modern-day Peru. The Inca civilization arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in the early 13th century...
took place, according to Garcilaso
Inca Garcilaso de la Vega
Garcilaso de la Vega , born Gómez Suárez de Figueroa, was a historian and writer from the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru. The son of a Spanish conquistador and an Inca noblewoman, he is recognized primarily for his contributions to Inca history, culture, and society...
, during the government of Tupac Inca Yupanqui
Tupac Inca Yupanqui
Topa Inca Yupanqui , translated as "noble Inca accountant," was the tenth Sapa Inca of the Inca Empire, and fifth of the Hanan dynasty. His father was Pachacuti, and his son was Huayna Capac. Topa Inca belonged to the Qhapaq panaca....
in the second half of the 15th century. He recounts that the warlike actions began in Pias, a community on a mountain on the edge of Chachapoyas territory likely to the southwest of Gran Pajáten
Gran Pajáten
Gran Pajatén is an archaeological site located in the Andean cloud forests of Peru, on the border of the La Libertad region and the San Martín region, between the Marañon and Huallaga rivers. The archaeological site lies in the Rio Abiseo National Park, which was established in 1983. The park was...
.
According to de la Vega, the Chachapoyas anticipated an Inca incursion and began preparations to withstand it at least two years earlier. The chronicle of Cieza
Pedro Cieza de León
Pedro Cieza de León was a Spanish conquistador and chronicler of Peru. He is known primarily for his history and description of Peru, Crónicas del Perú...
also documents Chachapoya resistance. During the time of Huayna Capac
Huayna Capac
Huayna Capac was the eleventh Sapa Inca of the Inca Empire and sixth of the Hanan dynasty. He was the successor to Tupac Inca Yupanqui.-Name:In Quechua, his name is spelled Wayna Qhapaq, and in Southern Quechua, it is Vaina Ghapakh...
's regime, the Chachapoyas rebelled:
In response, Huayna Capac
Huayna Capac
Huayna Capac was the eleventh Sapa Inca of the Inca Empire and sixth of the Hanan dynasty. He was the successor to Tupac Inca Yupanqui.-Name:In Quechua, his name is spelled Wayna Qhapaq, and in Southern Quechua, it is Vaina Ghapakh...
, who was in the Ecuador
Ecuador
Ecuador , officially the Republic of Ecuador is a representative democratic republic in South America, bordered by Colombia on the north, Peru on the east and south, and by the Pacific Ocean to the west. It is one of only two countries in South America, along with Chile, that do not have a border...
ian cañaris
Cañaris
The Cañari are an indigenous ethnic group traditionally inhabiting the territory of the modern provinces of Azuay and Cañar in Ecuador; the term also refers to an independent pre-Hispanic tribal confederation of the same name, from which the modern people are descended. They are particularly noted...
land at the time, sent messengers to negotiate peace. But again, the Chachapoyas "punished the messengers (...) and threatened them with death". Huayna Capac then ordered an attack. He crossed the Marañón River
Marañón River
The Marañón River rises about 160 km to the northeast of Lima, Peru, flows through a deeply-eroded Andean valley in a northwesterly direction, along the eastern base of the Cordillera of the Andes, as far as 5 degrees 36' southern latitude; then it makes a great bend to the northeast, and...
over a bridge of wooden rafts that he ordered to be built probably near Balsas, next to Celendín
Celendín
Celendín is a town in northern Peru, capital of the province Celendín in the region Cajamarca.-References:* Celendín. Wikipedia en español.* Provincia de Celendín. Wikipedia en español, información bastante completa....
.
From here, Inca troops proceeded to Cajamarquilla
Cajamarquilla
The Cajamarquilla archaeological site is located 25 km inland from the coastal city of Lima, Peru; in the Jicamarca Valley, 6 km north of the Rímac River. It occupies an area of approximately 167 ha, making it one of the largest archaeological monuments in the country...
(Bolivar
Bolívar Province (Peru)
The Bolívar Province is a Peruvian province located in the La Libertad Region. It is one of the twelve provinces that make up that region.-Boundaries:*North Amazonas Region*East San Martín Region*South Pataz Province...
), with the intention of destroying "one of the principal towns" of the 'Chachapoyas. From Cajamarquilla
Cajamarquilla
The Cajamarquilla archaeological site is located 25 km inland from the coastal city of Lima, Peru; in the Jicamarca Valley, 6 km north of the Rímac River. It occupies an area of approximately 167 ha, making it one of the largest archaeological monuments in the country...
, a delegation of women came to meet them, led by a matron who was a former concubine of Tupac Inca Yupanqui. They asked for mercy and forgiveness, which the Inca granted them. In memory of this event of a peace agreement, the place where the negotiation had taken place was declared sacred and closed so from now on "neither men nor animals, nor even birds, if it were possible, would put their feet in it."
To assure the pacification of the Chachapoyas, the Incas installed garrisons in the region. They also arranged the transfer of groups of villagers under the system of mitmac, or forced resettlement:
The Inca presence in the territory of Chachapoyas
Chachapoyas Province
Chachapoyas is a province of the Amazonas Region, Peru. The province of Chachapoyas was a part of the department of Trujillo being its capital the city of Chachapoyas....
left structures at Cochabamba
Cochabamba
Cochabamba is a city in central Bolivia, located in a valley bearing the same name in the Andes mountain range. It is the capital of the Cochabamba Department and is the fourth largest city in Bolivia with an urban population of 608,276 and a metropolitan population of more than 1,000,000 people...
in the outskirts of Utcubamba
Utcubamba River
The Utcubamba River is a river in the Amazonas Region of Peru, located at . The river's name is Quechua for "cotton fields".The Utcubamba River originates in the highlands of the central cordillera, then flows north through Amazonas before joining the Marañón River...
in the current district of Leimebamba as well as other sites.
Characteristics
Kuelap
The fortress of Kuelap or Cuélap , associated with the Chachapoyas culture, consists of massive exterior stone walls containing more than four hundred buildings. The structure, situated on a ridge overlooking the Utcubamba Valley in northern Peru, is roughly 600 meters in length and 110 meters in...
and the ruins of Cerro Olán are prime examples of this architectural style.
Chachapoyan constructions may date to the 9th or 10th century; this architectural tradition still thrived at the time of the arrival of the Spanish
Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
The Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire was one of the most important campaigns in the Spanish colonization of the Americas. This historic process of military conquest was made by Spanish conquistadores and their native allies....
until the latter part of the 16th century. To be sure, the Incas introduced their own style after conquering the Chachapoyas, such as in the case of the ruins of Cochabamba in the district of Leimebamba
Leimebamba District
Leimebamba is a district of the province of Chachapoyas. It is located in the northern Peruvian department of Amazonas, in the valley of the Utcubamba River, about 60 kilometers south of Chachapoyas. Leimebamba is at approximately 2,000 meters above sea level, and the area is warm with a lush...
.
The presence of two funeral patterns is also typical of the Chachapoyas culture. One is represented by sarcophagi
Sarcophagus
A sarcophagus is a funeral receptacle for a corpse, most commonly carved or cut from stone. The word "sarcophagus" comes from the Greek σαρξ sarx meaning "flesh", and φαγειν phagein meaning "to eat", hence sarkophagus means "flesh-eating"; from the phrase lithos sarkophagos...
, placed vertically and located in caves that were excavated at the highest point of precipices. The other funeral pattern was groups of mausoleum
Mausoleum
A mausoleum is an external free-standing building constructed as a monument enclosing the interment space or burial chamber of a deceased person or persons. A monument without the interment is a cenotaph. A mausoleum may be considered a type of tomb or the tomb may be considered to be within the...
s constructed like tiny houses located in caves worked into cliffs.
Chachapoyan handmade ceramics did not reach the technological level of the Mochica
Moche
'The Moche civilization flourished in northern Peru from about 100 AD to 800 AD, during the Regional Development Epoch. While this issue is the subject of some debate, many scholars contend that the Moche were not politically organized as a monolithic empire or state...
or Nazca
Nazca culture
The Nazca culture was the archaeological culture that flourished from 100 to 800 CE beside the dry southern coast of Peru in the river valleys of the Rio Grande de Nazca drainage and the Ica Valley...
cultures. Their small pitchers
Pitcher (container)
A pitcher is a container with a spout used for storing and pouring contents which are liquid in form. Generally a pitcher also has a handle, which makes pouring easier.A ewer is a vase-shaped pitcher, often decorated, with a base and a flaring spout...
are frequently decorated by cordoned motifs. As for textile art
Textile art
Textile art may refer to:*Any one of the textile arts, those arts and crafts that use plant, animal, or synthetic fibers to construct practical or decorative objects*Fiber art, the creation of fine art using textile arts techniques and materials...
, clothes were generally colored in red. A monumental textile from the precincts of Pajáten
Gran Pajáten
Gran Pajatén is an archaeological site located in the Andean cloud forests of Peru, on the border of the La Libertad region and the San Martín region, between the Marañon and Huallaga rivers. The archaeological site lies in the Rio Abiseo National Park, which was established in 1983. The park was...
had been painted with figures of birds. The Chachapoyas also used to paint their walls, as an extant sample in San Antonio
Tunnels of San Antonio
The tunnels of San Antonio are located in the province of Luya, Peru. They are rocky formations like natural bridges placed over San Antonio river....
, province of Luya
Luya Province
Luya is located in the south and west part of the department of Amazonas in Peru. Its territory, which partly is ceja de selva, is crossed by branches of the Cordillera Central and the Oriental of the Andes, being rasped by deep streams, high pampas and snowed summit...
, reveals. These walls represent stages of a ritual dance of couples holding hands.
History
Although there is archaeological evidence that people began settling this geographical area as early as AD 200 or before, the Chachapoyas culture is thought to have developed around AD 750–800. The major urban centers, such as KuélapKuelap
The fortress of Kuelap or Cuélap , associated with the Chachapoyas culture, consists of massive exterior stone walls containing more than four hundred buildings. The structure, situated on a ridge overlooking the Utcubamba Valley in northern Peru, is roughly 600 meters in length and 110 meters in...
and Gran Pajáten
Gran Pajáten
Gran Pajatén is an archaeological site located in the Andean cloud forests of Peru, on the border of the La Libertad region and the San Martín region, between the Marañon and Huallaga rivers. The archaeological site lies in the Rio Abiseo National Park, which was established in 1983. The park was...
, may have developed as a defensive measure against the Huari, a Middle Horizon
Cultural periods of Peru
This is a chart of cultural periods of Peru and the Andean Region developed by Edward Lanning and used by some archaeologists studying the area...
culture that covered much of the coast and highlands.
In the fifteenth century, the Inca empire expanded to incorporate the Chachapoyas region. Although fortifications such as the citadel at Kuélap may have been an adequate defense against the invading Inca, it is possible that by this time the Chachapoyas settlements had become decentralized and fragmented after the threat of Huari invasion had dissipated. The Chachapoyas were conquered by Inca ruler Tupac Inca Yupanqui
Tupac Inca Yupanqui
Topa Inca Yupanqui , translated as "noble Inca accountant," was the tenth Sapa Inca of the Inca Empire, and fifth of the Hanan dynasty. His father was Pachacuti, and his son was Huayna Capac. Topa Inca belonged to the Qhapaq panaca....
around AD 1475. The defeat of the Chachapoyas was fairly swift; however, smaller rebellions continued for many years. Using the mitmac system of ethnic dispersion, the Inca attempted to quell these rebellions by forcing large numbers of Chachapoya people to resettle in remote locations of the empire.
When civil war broke out within the Inca empire, the Chachapoyas were located on middle ground between the northern capital at Quito
Quito
San Francisco de Quito, most often called Quito , is the capital city of Ecuador in northwestern South America. It is located in north-central Ecuador in the Guayllabamba river basin, on the eastern slopes of Pichincha, an active stratovolcano in the Andes mountains...
, ruled by the Inca Atahualpa
Atahualpa
Atahualpa, Atahuallpa, Atabalipa, or Atawallpa , was the last Sapa Inca or sovereign emperor of the Tahuantinsuyu, or the Inca Empire, prior to the Spanish conquest of Peru...
, and the southern capital at Cuzco
Cusco
Cusco , often spelled Cuzco , is a city in southeastern Peru, near the Urubamba Valley of the Andes mountain range. It is the capital of the Cusco Region as well as the Cuzco Province. In 2007, the city had a population of 358,935 which was triple the figure of 20 years ago...
, ruled by Atahualpa's brother Huáscar
Huáscar
Huáscar Inca was Sapa Inca of the Inca empire from 1527 to 1532 AD, succeeding his father Huayna Capac and brother Ninan Cuyochi, both of whom died of smallpox while campaigning near Quito.After the conquest, the Spanish put forth the idea that Huayna Capac may have...
. Many of the Chachapoyas were conscripted into Huáscar's army, and heavy casualties ensued. After Atahualpa's eventual victory, many more of the Chachapoyas were executed or deported due to their former allegiance with Huáscar.
It was due to the harsh treatment of the Chachapoyas during the years of subjugation that many of the Chachapoyas initially chose to side with the Spanish colonialists when they arrived in Peru. Guaman, a local ruler from Cochabamba
Cochabamba
Cochabamba is a city in central Bolivia, located in a valley bearing the same name in the Andes mountain range. It is the capital of the Cochabamba Department and is the fourth largest city in Bolivia with an urban population of 608,276 and a metropolitan population of more than 1,000,000 people...
, pledged his allegiance to the conquistador Francisco Pizarro
Francisco Pizarro
Francisco Pizarro González, Marquess was a Spanish conquistador, conqueror of the Incan Empire, and founder of Lima, the modern-day capital of the Republic of Peru.-Early life:...
after the capture of Atahualpa in Cajamarca
Cajamarca
Cajamarca may refer to:Colombia*Cajamarca, Tolima a town and municipality in Tolima DepartmentPeru* Cajamarca, city in Peru.* Cajamarca District, district in the Cajamarca province.* Cajamarca Province, province in the Cajamarca region....
. The Spanish moved in and occupied Cochabamba, extorting what riches they could find from the local inhabitants.
During Inca Manco Cápac
Manco Inca Yupanqui
Manco Inca Yupanqui was one of the Incas of Vilcabamba. He was also known as "Manco II" and "Manco Cápac II" . Born in 1516, he was one of the sons of Huayna Cápac and came from a lower class of the nobility.Túpac Huallpa, a puppet ruler crowned by conquistador Francisco Pizarro, died in 1533...
's rebellion against the Spanish, his emissaries enlisted the help of a group of Chachapoyas. However, Guaman's supporters remained loyal to the Spanish. By 1547, a large faction of Spanish soldiers arrived in the city of Chachapoyas
Chachapoyas, Peru
In this part of Peru, located in the eyebrow of the jungle, the climate is subtropical highland, described by the Köppen climate classification as Cwb, with an average temperature of 18 °C and an average relative humidity of 74 percent. However, in some areas the temperature can drop to 2 °C....
, effectively ending the Chachapoyas' independence. Residents were relocated to Spanish-style towns, often with members of several different ayllu
Ayllu
Ayllu is the traditional form of a community in the Andes, especially among Quechuas and Aymaras.Ayllus were the basic political and social units of pre-Inca and Inca life. These were essentially extended family groups but they could adopt non-related members, giving individual families more...
occupying the same settlement. Disease, poverty, and attrition led to severe decreases in population; by some accounts the population of the Chachapoyas region decreased by 90% over the course of 200 years after the arrival of the Spanish.
Archaeological sites
The Chachapoyas people built the great fortress of KuélapKuelap
The fortress of Kuelap or Cuélap , associated with the Chachapoyas culture, consists of massive exterior stone walls containing more than four hundred buildings. The structure, situated on a ridge overlooking the Utcubamba Valley in northern Peru, is roughly 600 meters in length and 110 meters in...
, with more than four hundred interior buildings and massive exterior stone walls reaching upwards of 60 feet in height, possibly to defend against the Huari around 800 AD. Referred to as the 'Machu Picchu
Machu Picchu
Machu Picchu is a pre-Columbian 15th-century Inca site located above sea level. It is situated on a mountain ridge above the Urubamba Valley in Peru, which is northwest of Cusco and through which the Urubamba River flows. Most archaeologists believe that Machu Picchu was built as an estate for...
of the north,' Kuélap receives few visitors due to its remote location.
Archaeological sites in the region include the settlement of Gran Pajáten
Gran Pajáten
Gran Pajatén is an archaeological site located in the Andean cloud forests of Peru, on the border of the La Libertad region and the San Martín region, between the Marañon and Huallaga rivers. The archaeological site lies in the Rio Abiseo National Park, which was established in 1983. The park was...
, Gran Saposoa
Gran Saposoa
Gran Saposoa is the name given to a series of ruins in the Andean cloud forests of the Amazonas region of Peru by American explorer Gene Savoy. Savoy hypothesized that this site is the Pre-Columbian city of Cajamarquilla, built by the Chachapoyas culture, but "Cajamarquilla" is clearly identifiable...
, the Atumpucro complex, and the burial sites at Revash
Revash
The Revash funerary complex is located in Peru's Santo Tomás District, part of Luya Province, approximately 60 km to the south of Chachapoyas, the capital of the Amazonas Region. At an altitude of 2,800 m above sea level, the funeral buildings are located in the calcareous rock formation of...
and Laguna de los Condores (Lake of the Condors), among many others.
In popular culture
The Chachapoyan culture plays a significant role in the archaeological novel Inca GoldInca Gold
Inca Gold is a novel written by Clive Cussler. First published in 1994, it is the twelfth book in Cussler's Dirk Pitt series.-Plot summary:...
by Clive Cussler
Clive Cussler
Clive Eric Cussler is an American adventure novelist and marine archaeologist. His thriller novels, many featuring the character Dirk Pitt, have reached The New York Times fiction best-seller list more than seventeen times...
. The opening scene of the adventure film Raiders of the Lost Ark
Raiders of the Lost Ark
Raiders of the Lost Ark is a 1981 American action-adventure film directed by Steven Spielberg, produced by George Lucas, and starring Harrison Ford. It is the first film in the Indiana Jones franchise...
involves a fictionalised Chachapoyan temple, which Indiana Jones explores in order to find a distinctive Golden Idol
Golden Idol
The Chachapoyan Fertility Idol, also known as Golden Idol, is a fictitious artifact that appeared in the opening sequence of Raiders of the Lost Ark, a 1981 adventure film directed by Steven Spielberg. Its likeness was made famous by the popularity of the film...
, uncovering many deadly traps along the way.
External links
- Ethnography and Archaeology of Chachapoyas
- Archaeological conservation dilemmas in Chachapoyas
- Peru North map including Chachapoyas
- Incas in Chachapoyas
- Chachapoyas underground burial site discovered
- Photoreportage about Chachapoyas by Enrico MartinoEnrico MartinoEnrico Martino is an Italian photojournalist.-Biography:Turin-born, freelance photojournalist from 1971, covered Sahel famine in 1984, Yom Kippur War, 1991 Gulf War. first elections in German Democratic Republic, Hungary and Romania after Berlin Wall fall...