Christine Ladd-Franklin
Encyclopedia
Christine Ladd-Franklin (December 1, 1847 – March 5, 1930) was the first American
woman psychologist
, logician, and mathematician
.
to Eliphalet Ladd, a merchant, and Augusta Niles Ladd. During her early childhood, she lived with her parents and younger brother Henry (born 1850) in New York City. In 1853 the family moved back to Windsor, Connecticut where her sister Jane Augusta Ladd McCordia was born the following year. Following the death of her mother in spring 1860 to pneumonia, Ladd went to live with her paternal grandmother in Portsmouth, New Hampshire
where she attended school.
After the death of her mother Ladd’s father remarried in 1862 and produced her half-sister, Katherine (born 1862) and a half-brother, George (born 1867). Ladd was a precocious child who sought to find “a mean to continue her education beyond secondary school.”. Ladd’s wish was granted when her father enrolled her in a two years program at a coeducational Welshing academy in Wilbraham, Massachusetts where she took the same courses that prepared boys in furthering their education to colleges such as Harvard. In 1865 Christine Ladd as valedictorian graduated from Welshing Academy.
In the fall of 1866 Ladd enrolled in Vassar College
with a loan provided by her late mother’s sister. She only studied at Vassar until the end of the spring term due to financial issues. During the time that she was not attending college Ladd worked as a public school teacher until her aunt aid allowed her to reenter Vassar and graduate in 1869. At Vassar Ladd was interested in physic but knew that the field was not open to women so she studied mathematics.
. During this time, Ladd contributed seventy-seven mathematical problems and solutions to the Educational Times of London
published. She also published six items in The Analyst: A Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics and three in the American Journal of Mathematics.
Soon after completing graduate work at John Hopkins, she married Fabian Franklin (a fellow graduate student who received his Ph.D. in mathematics), hence she became Christine Ladd-Franklin. Ladd-Franklin had two children, one of whom died in infancy, the other Margaret Ladd Franklin, who became a prominent member in the women’s suffrage movement.
, where she attended his lectures on theory of color vision. After attending these lectures Ladd-Franklin developed her own theory of color vision. In 1929 she published Color and Color Theories.
Ladd-Franklin noted that
"some animals are color blind and assumed that achromatic vision appeared first in evolution and color vision came later. She assumed further that the human eye carries vestiges of its earlier evolutionary development. She observed that the most highly evolved part of the eye is the fovea, where, at least in daylight, visual acuity and color sensitivity are greatest. Ladd-Franklin assumed that peripheral vision (provided by the rods of the retina) was more primitive than foveal vision (provided by the cones of the retina) because night vision and movement detection are crucial for survival."
in December 1893. From 1894-1925, Ladd-Franklin presented ten papers at APA meetings. She was also one of the first female members of the Optical Society of America
(OSA) in 1919. During the OSA meetings she presented six papers and two exhibits. She was also a prominent member of the women’s rights movement. Ladd-Franklin was included in the Who’s Who in America during 1901-1902 and 1914-1915. Ladd-Franklin remained a member of APA and OSA until her death on March 5, 1930 in New York, New York.
In 1948, Bertrand Russell
wrote: "I once received a letter from an eminent logician, Mrs. Christine Ladd-Franklin, saying that she was a solipsist, and was surprised that there were no others. Coming from a logician and a solipsist, her surprise surprised me." (Russell, p. 180).
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
woman psychologist
Psychologist
Psychologist is a professional or academic title used by individuals who are either:* Clinical professionals who work with patients in a variety of therapeutic contexts .* Scientists conducting psychological research or teaching psychology in a college...
, logician, and mathematician
Mathematician
A mathematician is a person whose primary area of study is the field of mathematics. Mathematicians are concerned with quantity, structure, space, and change....
.
Early Life and Early Education
Christine Ladd-Franklin was born as Christine Ladd on December 1, 1847 in Windsor, ConnecticutWindsor, Connecticut
Windsor is a town in Hartford County, Connecticut, United States, and was the first English settlement in the state. It lies on the northern border of Connecticut's capital, Hartford. The population was estimated at 28,778 in 2005....
to Eliphalet Ladd, a merchant, and Augusta Niles Ladd. During her early childhood, she lived with her parents and younger brother Henry (born 1850) in New York City. In 1853 the family moved back to Windsor, Connecticut where her sister Jane Augusta Ladd McCordia was born the following year. Following the death of her mother in spring 1860 to pneumonia, Ladd went to live with her paternal grandmother in Portsmouth, New Hampshire
Portsmouth, New Hampshire
Portsmouth is a city in Rockingham County, New Hampshire in the United States. It is the largest city but only the fourth-largest community in the county, with a population of 21,233 at the 2010 census...
where she attended school.
After the death of her mother Ladd’s father remarried in 1862 and produced her half-sister, Katherine (born 1862) and a half-brother, George (born 1867). Ladd was a precocious child who sought to find “a mean to continue her education beyond secondary school.”. Ladd’s wish was granted when her father enrolled her in a two years program at a coeducational Welshing academy in Wilbraham, Massachusetts where she took the same courses that prepared boys in furthering their education to colleges such as Harvard. In 1865 Christine Ladd as valedictorian graduated from Welshing Academy.
In the fall of 1866 Ladd enrolled in Vassar College
Vassar College
Vassar College is a private, coeducational liberal arts college in the town of Poughkeepsie, New York, in the United States. The Vassar campus comprises over and more than 100 buildings, including four National Historic Landmarks, ranging in style from Collegiate Gothic to International,...
with a loan provided by her late mother’s sister. She only studied at Vassar until the end of the spring term due to financial issues. During the time that she was not attending college Ladd worked as a public school teacher until her aunt aid allowed her to reenter Vassar and graduate in 1869. At Vassar Ladd was interested in physic but knew that the field was not open to women so she studied mathematics.
Early Career Development
After graduating, Ladd taught science and mathematics at secondary level in Washington, PennsylvaniaWashington, Pennsylvania
Washington is a city in and the county seat of Washington County, Pennsylvania, United States, within the Pittsburgh Metro Area in the southwestern part of the state...
. During this time, Ladd contributed seventy-seven mathematical problems and solutions to the Educational Times of London
London
London is the capital city of :England and the :United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its...
published. She also published six items in The Analyst: A Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics and three in the American Journal of Mathematics.
Graduate Education
In 1878, Ladd was accepted into John Hopkins University with the help of James J. Sylvester, an English mathematician who remembered some of Ladd’s earlier works in London Educational Times. At this time Hopkins did not approve of coeducation so Ladd was only allowed in classes taught by Sylvester. After displaying exceptional work in Sylvester’s courses, Ladd was allowed to take other courses with different professors. Even though she was awarded a stipend, she was known as a fellow student. During 1879–1880, Ladd took classes taught by Charles Sanders Peirce who was the first American experimental psychologist. She wrote a dissertation "On the Algebra of Logic" with Peirce as the thesis advisor. The dissertation was published in Studies in Logic (Peirce, ed.) in 1883. Due to her studies with Peirce, Ladd became the first women to be involved in psychology, mathematics and logic. Since women were not allowed to graduate at Hopkins, Ladd was refused a Ph.D. in Mathematics and Logic. However, Hopkins officially granted her a Ph.D. in February 22, 1926 (44 years after she had earned it) at the age of seventy eight.Soon after completing graduate work at John Hopkins, she married Fabian Franklin (a fellow graduate student who received his Ph.D. in mathematics), hence she became Christine Ladd-Franklin. Ladd-Franklin had two children, one of whom died in infancy, the other Margaret Ladd Franklin, who became a prominent member in the women’s suffrage movement.
Major Contributions and Achievements
After leaving Hopkins, Ladd-Franklin worked with a prominent German psychologist G. E. Müller, where she carried out experimental work in vision. In addition to working with Müller, Ladd-Franklin was able to work in the laboratory of Hermann von HelmholtzHermann von Helmholtz
Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz was a German physician and physicist who made significant contributions to several widely varied areas of modern science...
, where she attended his lectures on theory of color vision. After attending these lectures Ladd-Franklin developed her own theory of color vision. In 1929 she published Color and Color Theories.
Ladd-Franklin Theory of Color Vision
One of the major contributions that Ladd-Franklin made to psychology was her theory of color vision, which was based on evolution.Ladd-Franklin noted that
"some animals are color blind and assumed that achromatic vision appeared first in evolution and color vision came later. She assumed further that the human eye carries vestiges of its earlier evolutionary development. She observed that the most highly evolved part of the eye is the fovea, where, at least in daylight, visual acuity and color sensitivity are greatest. Ladd-Franklin assumed that peripheral vision (provided by the rods of the retina) was more primitive than foveal vision (provided by the cones of the retina) because night vision and movement detection are crucial for survival."
Stages of Color Vision
Ladd-Franklin concluded that color vision evolved in three stages; the first Achromatic vision (black and white), blue-yellow sensitivity and finally red-green sensitivity. Since red-green sensitivity was the last to evolve it explains why many people suffer from red-green color blindness. The next one that affects a small population is blue-yellow color blindness. Since achromatic vision was the first to evolve it explains why the majority of the population are not affected by black-white color blindness.Mathematics and Logic
Ladd-Franklin was the first woman to have a published paper in the Analyst. She was also the first woman to receive a Ph.D. in mathematics and logic. The majority of her publications were based on visual processes and logic. Her views on logic influenced Charles S. Peirce’s logic and she was highly praised by Prior.Professional involvements
Ladd-Franklin was among the first women to be inducted into the American Psychological AssociationAmerican Psychological Association
The American Psychological Association is the largest scientific and professional organization of psychologists in the United States. It is the world's largest association of psychologists with around 154,000 members including scientists, educators, clinicians, consultants and students. The APA...
in December 1893. From 1894-1925, Ladd-Franklin presented ten papers at APA meetings. She was also one of the first female members of the Optical Society of America
Optical Society of America
The Optical Society is a scientific society dedicated to advancing the study of light—optics and photonics—in theory and application, by means of publishing, organizing conferences and exhibitions, partnership with industry, and education. The organization has members in more than 100 countries...
(OSA) in 1919. During the OSA meetings she presented six papers and two exhibits. She was also a prominent member of the women’s rights movement. Ladd-Franklin was included in the Who’s Who in America during 1901-1902 and 1914-1915. Ladd-Franklin remained a member of APA and OSA until her death on March 5, 1930 in New York, New York.
In 1948, Bertrand Russell
Bertrand Russell
Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS was a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, historian, and social critic. At various points in his life he considered himself a liberal, a socialist, and a pacifist, but he also admitted that he had never been any of these things...
wrote: "I once received a letter from an eminent logician, Mrs. Christine Ladd-Franklin, saying that she was a solipsist, and was surprised that there were no others. Coming from a logician and a solipsist, her surprise surprised me." (Russell, p. 180).
Published works
- "Quaternions", The AnalystAnnals of MathematicsThe Annals of Mathematics is a bimonthly mathematical journal published by Princeton University and the Institute for Advanced Study. It ranks amongst the most prestigious mathematics journals in the world by criteria such as impact factor.-History:The journal began as The Analyst in 1874 and was...
v. 4, n. 6, pp. 172–4 (Nov 1877). Google Books The Analyst p. 172 in n. 6 (November) in v. 4 (1877). Also JSTOR "Quaternons" first page. (Several journals have been called "The Analyst". See The Analyst (disambiguation)The Analyst (disambiguation)The Analyst is a book by George BerkeleyThe Analyst may also refer to:* The Analyst, or, Mathematical Museum, a US journal* The Analyst, the first name of the Annals of Mathematics, a journal* The Analyst...
. Internet searches for The Analyst, the one which became The Annals of Mathematics, should use the search phrase "The Analyst" mathematics, otherwise The Analyst about chemistryThe Analyst (chemistry journal)Analyst is a peer-reviewed scientific journal publishing original research and review articles on any aspect of analytical, bioanalytical and detection science. It is published biweekly by the Royal Society of Chemistry...
will dominate search results.) - "On the Algebra of Logic" in Studies in Logic, C. S. Peirce, ed., pp. 17–71, 1883. Google Books Eprint. Internet Archive Eprint.
- "On Some Characteristics of Symbolic Logic" in the American Journal of Psychology, v. 2, n. 4, pp. 543–567, August 1889. Google Books Eprint. Internet Archive Eprint.
- "Epistemology for the logician" in Verhandlungen des III. Interntionalen Kongresses fur Philosophie., pp. 64–670, 1908. Also separately as an offprint.
- "Charles Peirce at the Johns Hopkins", The Journal of Philosophy, Psychology, and Scientific Methods v. 13, n. 26, 715–723, December 1916. Google Books Eprint (badly done) and seek the text.
- "The Reddish Blue Arcs and the Reddish Blue Glow of the Retina; an Emanation from Stimulated Nerve Fibre." in VIIIth International Congress of Psychology: Proceedings and Papers, 1926.
- Colour and Colour Theories, Routledge, 320 pages, 1929.
External links
- hrvh.org The Christine Ladd-Franklin Diary 1866–1873