Chu Ci
Encyclopedia
Chu Ci also known as Songs of the South or Songs of Chu, is an anthology of Chinese
verse
traditionally attributed to Qu Yuan
and Song Yu
from the Warring States Period
, though about half of the poems seem to have been composed several centuries later, during the Han Dynasty
. The traditional version of the Chu Ci contains 17 works, and was produced by Wang Yi , a 2nd century AD librarian who served under Emperor Shun of Han
. The Chu Ci and the more well-known Shi Jing
together constitute the classics of pre-Qin dynasty
Chinese verse.
, the southernmost area settled by Chinese prior to the Qin Dynasty
. Chu was known for its unique blend of culture from the Chinese heartland with other cultures from that of the south. A Chinese form of shamanism
was prominent in Chu, and a large number of the Chu Ci describe "spirit journeys"
, with extensive references to fragrant plants and various spirits.
The collection of poems by Qu Yuan and Song Yu included in Chu Ci, as well as works by other Chu poets, were already popular during the Western Han Dynasty. The Book of Han
noted 106 Chu poets with 1,318 compositions. Many established Han poets also imitated the style of chu ci and produced their fair share of notable poems. However, it was only during the reign of Emperor Cheng
when Liu Xiang
arranged and compiled the poems of Qu Yuan and Song Yu, as well as those of Han poets including Wang Bao (王褒), Jia Yi
(賈誼), Yan Ji (嚴忌) and Liu Xiang himself, into Chu Ci as it is known today.
. However, his advice was not taken and he was ostracized by other officials in court. Seeing the corruption of his colleagues and the inability of his king, Qu Yuan then exiled himself and finally committed suicide in the Miluo River
when Qin defeated Chu in 278 BC
. It is in remembrance of the circumstances of his death that the annual Dragon boat
races are held.
During his days of exile, Qu Yuan is thought to have written Li Sao
, his magnum opus and the centerpiece of Chu Ci. The authorship, as in many a case of ancient literature, can be neither confirmed nor denied. Written in 373 verses containing 2490 characters, Li Sao is the earliest Chinese long poem and is acclaimed as the literary representative of Qu Yuan's high moral conduct and patriotism.
Jiu Ge ("Nine Songs"), also attributed to Qu Yuan, is the first example of what could be called shamanic literature in China. (See Arthur Waley
, The Nine Songs: A Study of Shamanism in Ancient China.)
兮, pronounced xī in modern Mandarin is an exclamatory particle much used as a characteristic poetic device in the Chuci poems. Rather than using the classic four-character verse characteristic of the poems of the Shi Jing
, the Chu ci is characterized by a verse form which uses variable line lengths. This gives it a different rhythmic latitude of expression. Furthermore, the verses of the Chu Ci would have been recited using pronunciations of the southern dialect
of Chu, in the region of the Yangzi River; unlike the poems of the Shi Jing, which were sung using the northern dialects of the Yellow River
area. The poems of the Chuci remain as a major factor in the study of Classical Chinese poetry, history, and culture. Not only have the various poems or prose-poems influenced subsequent literature, but the contents of this material are a major primary source for historical information about the culture and religious beliefs of the former Kingdom of Chu. The beliefs seem to have been related to earlier beliefs of the Shang
and the Zhou
, but to have retained much in the way of local shamanistic practices
.
's Records of the Grand Historian
mentions five of Qu Yuan's works:
According to Wang Yi
of the Eastern Han dynasty, a total of 25 works can be attributed to Qu Yuan:
Wang Yi
chose to attribute Zhao Hun
to another contemporary of Qu Yuan, Song Yu
; most modern scholars, however, consider Zhao Hun
to be Qu Yuan's original work, whereas Yuan You
, Pu Ju, and Yu Fu
are believed to have been composed by others.
Chinese language
The Chinese language is a language or language family consisting of varieties which are mutually intelligible to varying degrees. Originally the indigenous languages spoken by the Han Chinese in China, it forms one of the branches of Sino-Tibetan family of languages...
verse
Verse (poetry)
A verse is formally a single line in a metrical composition, e.g. poetry. However, the word has come to represent any division or grouping of words in such a composition, which traditionally had been referred to as a stanza....
traditionally attributed to Qu Yuan
Qu Yuan
Qu Yuan was a Chinese poet who lived during the Warring States Period in ancient China. He is famous for his contributions to the poetry collection known as the Chu-ci...
and Song Yu
Song Yu
Song Yu was a well-known Chinese poet in the State of Chu. He is commonly said to have been a nephew of Qu Yuan, but no reliable biographical information is available...
from the Warring States Period
Warring States Period
The Warring States Period , also known as the Era of Warring States, or the Warring Kingdoms period, covers the Iron Age period from about 475 BC to the reunification of China under the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC...
, though about half of the poems seem to have been composed several centuries later, during the Han Dynasty
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
. The traditional version of the Chu Ci contains 17 works, and was produced by Wang Yi , a 2nd century AD librarian who served under Emperor Shun of Han
Emperor Shun of Han
Emperor Shun of Han, trad. ch. 漢順帝;, sim. ch. 漢顺帝, py. hàn shùn dì, wg. Han Shun-ti, was an emperor of the Chinese Han Dynasty and the seventh emperor of the Eastern Han period...
. The Chu Ci and the more well-known Shi Jing
Shi Jing
The Classic of Poetry , translated variously as the Book of Songs, the Book of Odes, and often known simply as its original name The Odes, is the earliest existing collection of Chinese poems and songs. It comprises 305 poems and songs, with many range from the 10th to the 7th centuries BC...
together constitute the classics of pre-Qin dynasty
Qin Dynasty
The Qin Dynasty was the first imperial dynasty of China, lasting from 221 to 207 BC. The Qin state derived its name from its heartland of Qin, in modern-day Shaanxi. The strength of the Qin state was greatly increased by the legalist reforms of Shang Yang in the 4th century BC, during the Warring...
Chinese verse.
History
Chu Ci was named after a form of poetry that originated in the State of ChuChu (state)
The State of Chu was a Zhou Dynasty vassal state in present-day central and southern China during the Spring and Autumn period and Warring States Period . Its ruling house had the surname Nai , and clan name Yan , later evolved to surname Mi , and clan name Xiong...
, the southernmost area settled by Chinese prior to the Qin Dynasty
Qin Dynasty
The Qin Dynasty was the first imperial dynasty of China, lasting from 221 to 207 BC. The Qin state derived its name from its heartland of Qin, in modern-day Shaanxi. The strength of the Qin state was greatly increased by the legalist reforms of Shang Yang in the 4th century BC, during the Warring...
. Chu was known for its unique blend of culture from the Chinese heartland with other cultures from that of the south. A Chinese form of shamanism
Shamanism
Shamanism is an anthropological term referencing a range of beliefs and practices regarding communication with the spiritual world. To quote Eliade: "A first definition of this complex phenomenon, and perhaps the least hazardous, will be: shamanism = technique of ecstasy." Shamanism encompasses the...
was prominent in Chu, and a large number of the Chu Ci describe "spirit journeys"
Astral projection
Astral projection is an interpretation of out-of-body experience that assumes the existence of an "astral body" separate from the physical body and capable of traveling outside it...
, with extensive references to fragrant plants and various spirits.
The collection of poems by Qu Yuan and Song Yu included in Chu Ci, as well as works by other Chu poets, were already popular during the Western Han Dynasty. The Book of Han
Book of Han
The Book of Han, Hanshu or History of the Former Han Dynasty |Fan Ye]] . Various scholars have estimated that the earliest material covered in the book dates back to between 206 and 202 BCE...
noted 106 Chu poets with 1,318 compositions. Many established Han poets also imitated the style of chu ci and produced their fair share of notable poems. However, it was only during the reign of Emperor Cheng
Emperor Cheng of Han
Emperor Cheng of Han was an emperor of the Chinese Han Dynasty ruling from 33 BC until 7 BC.Under Emperor Cheng, the Han dynasty continued its slide into disintegration while the Wang clan continued its slow grip on power and on governmental affairs as promoted by the previous emperor...
when Liu Xiang
Liu Xiang (author)
Liu Xiang , born Liu Gengsheng , courtesy name Zizheng , was a famous Confucian scholar of the Han Dynasty. He was born in Xuzhou and related to Liu Bang, the founder of the Han dynasty...
arranged and compiled the poems of Qu Yuan and Song Yu, as well as those of Han poets including Wang Bao (王褒), Jia Yi
Jia Yi
Jia Yi was a Chinese poet and statesman of the Han Dynasty.- Life:Jia Yi was born in 201 BCE in Luoyang....
(賈誼), Yan Ji (嚴忌) and Liu Xiang himself, into Chu Ci as it is known today.
Qu Yuan
Although Chu Ci is an anthology of poems by many poets, Qu Yuan was doubtless its central figure. A minister in the court of King Huai of Chu, Qu Yuan advocated forming an alliance with the other states against the dominance of QinQin (state)
The State of Qin was a Chinese feudal state that existed during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods of Chinese history...
. However, his advice was not taken and he was ostracized by other officials in court. Seeing the corruption of his colleagues and the inability of his king, Qu Yuan then exiled himself and finally committed suicide in the Miluo River
Miluo River
The Miluo River is an important river in the Dongting Lake watershed. It is famous as the location of the ritual suicide in 278 BC of Qu Yuan, a poet of Chu state during the Warring States period, in protest against the corruption of the era....
when Qin defeated Chu in 278 BC
278 BC
Year 278 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Luscinus and Papus...
. It is in remembrance of the circumstances of his death that the annual Dragon boat
Dragon boat
A dragon boat is a human-powered watercraft traditionally made, in the Pearl River delta region of southern China - Guangdong Province, of teak wood to various designs and sizes. In other parts of China different woods are used to build these traditional watercraft...
races are held.
During his days of exile, Qu Yuan is thought to have written Li Sao
Li Sao
Li Sao is a Chinese poem dating from the Warring States Period, largely written by Qu Yuan of the Kingdom of Chu. One of the most famous poems of pre-Qin China, it is a representative work of the Chu Ci form of poetry.-Title:The title's meaning has been debated about even in historical times...
, his magnum opus and the centerpiece of Chu Ci. The authorship, as in many a case of ancient literature, can be neither confirmed nor denied. Written in 373 verses containing 2490 characters, Li Sao is the earliest Chinese long poem and is acclaimed as the literary representative of Qu Yuan's high moral conduct and patriotism.
Jiu Ge ("Nine Songs"), also attributed to Qu Yuan, is the first example of what could be called shamanic literature in China. (See Arthur Waley
Arthur Waley
Arthur David Waley CH, CBE was an English orientalist and sinologist.-Life:Waley was born in Tunbridge Wells, Kent, England, as Arthur David Schloss, son of the economist David Frederick Schloss...
, The Nine Songs: A Study of Shamanism in Ancient China.)
Poetic form and style
The poems of the Chuci anthology tend toward the six-character line, with the addition of the xi syllable, which was placed in various postions in the line, except as initial word/character. The Chinese characterChinese character
Chinese characters are logograms used in the writing of Chinese and Japanese , less frequently Korean , formerly Vietnamese , or other languages...
兮, pronounced xī in modern Mandarin is an exclamatory particle much used as a characteristic poetic device in the Chuci poems. Rather than using the classic four-character verse characteristic of the poems of the Shi Jing
Shi Jing
The Classic of Poetry , translated variously as the Book of Songs, the Book of Odes, and often known simply as its original name The Odes, is the earliest existing collection of Chinese poems and songs. It comprises 305 poems and songs, with many range from the 10th to the 7th centuries BC...
, the Chu ci is characterized by a verse form which uses variable line lengths. This gives it a different rhythmic latitude of expression. Furthermore, the verses of the Chu Ci would have been recited using pronunciations of the southern dialect
Dialect
The term dialect is used in two distinct ways, even by linguists. One usage refers to a variety of a language that is a characteristic of a particular group of the language's speakers. The term is applied most often to regional speech patterns, but a dialect may also be defined by other factors,...
of Chu, in the region of the Yangzi River; unlike the poems of the Shi Jing, which were sung using the northern dialects of the Yellow River
Yellow River
The Yellow River or Huang He, formerly known as the Hwang Ho, is the second-longest river in China and the sixth-longest in the world at the estimated length of . Originating in the Bayan Har Mountains in Qinghai Province in western China, it flows through nine provinces of China and empties into...
area. The poems of the Chuci remain as a major factor in the study of Classical Chinese poetry, history, and culture. Not only have the various poems or prose-poems influenced subsequent literature, but the contents of this material are a major primary source for historical information about the culture and religious beliefs of the former Kingdom of Chu. The beliefs seem to have been related to earlier beliefs of the Shang
Shang Dynasty
The Shang Dynasty or Yin Dynasty was, according to traditional sources, the second Chinese dynasty, after the Xia. They ruled in the northeastern regions of the area known as "China proper" in the Yellow River valley...
and the Zhou
Zhou Dynasty
The Zhou Dynasty was a Chinese dynasty that followed the Shang Dynasty and preceded the Qin Dynasty. Although the Zhou Dynasty lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese history, the actual political and military control of China by the Ji family lasted only until 771 BC, a period known as...
, but to have retained much in the way of local shamanistic practices
Shamanism
Shamanism is an anthropological term referencing a range of beliefs and practices regarding communication with the spiritual world. To quote Eliade: "A first definition of this complex phenomenon, and perhaps the least hazardous, will be: shamanism = technique of ecstasy." Shamanism encompasses the...
.
Contents
- 離騷 Lí sāo "On Encountering Trouble"Li SaoLi Sao is a Chinese poem dating from the Warring States Period, largely written by Qu Yuan of the Kingdom of Chu. One of the most famous poems of pre-Qin China, it is a representative work of the Chu Ci form of poetry.-Title:The title's meaning has been debated about even in historical times...
- 九歌 Jiǔ gē "Nine Songs"Jiu GeJiu Ge , or Nine Songs, is a set of short poems sometimes attributed to Qu Yuan and published in the Chu Ci .The songs were compiled by Qu Yuan...
- 天問 Tiān wèn "Heavenly Questions"Heavenly QuestionsHeavenly Questions or Questions to Heaven is an important section of the Classical Chinese poetry collection Chuci. The collection is important both for the poetic verse which it contains as well as being a source for information on the ancient culture of China, especially the area of the state of...
- 九章 Jiǔ zhāng "Nine Pieces"Jiu ZhangJiu Zhang is a collection of poems attributed to Qu Yuan and printed in the Chu Ci .-Nine Pieces:The "Nine Pieces" consists of nine titles of poems:*惜誦*涉江*哀郢 *抽思*懷沙...
- 遠遊 Yuǎn yóu "Far-off Journey"Yuan YouYuan You is a poem attributed to Qu Yuan and published in the Chu Ci ....
- 卜居 Bǔ jū "Divination"Bu JuBu Ju a poem attributed to Qu Yuan and published in the Chu Ci ....
- 漁父 Yú fù "The Fisherman"Yu FuYu Fu is a poem attributed to Qu Yuan and published in the Chu Ci ....
- 九辯 Jiǔ biàn "Nine Changes"
- 招魂 Zhāo hún "Summons of the Soul"Zhao HunZhao Hun is a poem by Qu Yuan, and collected in the Chu Ci . The title is translated as Summons of the Soul, or Summoning of the Soul....
- 大招 Dà zhāo "The Great Summons"
- 惜誓 Xī shì "Sorrow for Troth Betrayed"
- 招隱 Zhāo yǐn "Summons for a Recluse"
- 七諫 Qī jiàn "Seven Remonstrances"
- 哀時命 Āi shí mìng "Alas That My Lot Was Not Cast"
- 九懷 Jiǔ huái "Nine Regrets"
- 九歎 Jiǔ tàn "Nine Laments"
- 九思 Jiǔ sī "Nine Longings"
Bibliographic
Scholars have debated the authenticity of several of Qu Yuan's works since the Western Han dynasty. Sima QianSima Qian
Sima Qian was a Prefect of the Grand Scribes of the Han Dynasty. He is regarded as the father of Chinese historiography for his highly praised work, Records of the Grand Historian , a "Jizhuanti"-style general history of China, covering more than two thousand years from the Yellow Emperor to...
's Records of the Grand Historian
Records of the Grand Historian
The Records of the Grand Historian, also known in English by the Chinese name Shiji , written from 109 BC to 91 BC, was the Magnum opus of Sima Qian, in which he recounted Chinese history from the time of the Yellow Emperor until his own time...
mentions five of Qu Yuan's works:
- Li SaoLi SaoLi Sao is a Chinese poem dating from the Warring States Period, largely written by Qu Yuan of the Kingdom of Chu. One of the most famous poems of pre-Qin China, it is a representative work of the Chu Ci form of poetry.-Title:The title's meaning has been debated about even in historical times...
("Encountering Sorrow") - Tian WenHeavenly QuestionsHeavenly Questions or Questions to Heaven is an important section of the Classical Chinese poetry collection Chuci. The collection is important both for the poetic verse which it contains as well as being a source for information on the ancient culture of China, especially the area of the state of...
- Zhao HunZhao HunZhao Hun is a poem by Qu Yuan, and collected in the Chu Ci . The title is translated as Summons of the Soul, or Summoning of the Soul....
("Summoning of the Soul") - Ai Ying ("Lament for Ying")
- Huai Sha
According to Wang Yi
Wang Yi
Wang Yi is a politician of the People's Republic of China. As professional diplomat, he formerly served as vice Foreign Minister and Chinese ambassador to Japan. He is the current director of Taiwan Affairs Office of the State Council of PRC....
of the Eastern Han dynasty, a total of 25 works can be attributed to Qu Yuan:
- Li SaoLi SaoLi Sao is a Chinese poem dating from the Warring States Period, largely written by Qu Yuan of the Kingdom of Chu. One of the most famous poems of pre-Qin China, it is a representative work of the Chu Ci form of poetry.-Title:The title's meaning has been debated about even in historical times...
- Jiu GeJiu GeJiu Ge , or Nine Songs, is a set of short poems sometimes attributed to Qu Yuan and published in the Chu Ci .The songs were compiled by Qu Yuan...
(consisting of 11 pieces) - Tian WenTian WenTian Wen can refer to:*Lord Mengchang of Qi, who was named Tian Wen at birth*The Heavenly Questions section of the Classical Chinese poetry work Chuci...
- Jiu ZhangJiu ZhangJiu Zhang is a collection of poems attributed to Qu Yuan and printed in the Chu Ci .-Nine Pieces:The "Nine Pieces" consists of nine titles of poems:*惜誦*涉江*哀郢 *抽思*懷沙...
(consisting of 9 pieces) - Yuan YouYuan YouYuan You is a poem attributed to Qu Yuan and published in the Chu Ci ....
- Pu Ju
- Yu FuYu FuYu Fu is a poem attributed to Qu Yuan and published in the Chu Ci ....
Wang Yi
Wang Yi
Wang Yi is a politician of the People's Republic of China. As professional diplomat, he formerly served as vice Foreign Minister and Chinese ambassador to Japan. He is the current director of Taiwan Affairs Office of the State Council of PRC....
chose to attribute Zhao Hun
Zhao Hun
Zhao Hun is a poem by Qu Yuan, and collected in the Chu Ci . The title is translated as Summons of the Soul, or Summoning of the Soul....
to another contemporary of Qu Yuan, Song Yu
Song Yu
Song Yu was a well-known Chinese poet in the State of Chu. He is commonly said to have been a nephew of Qu Yuan, but no reliable biographical information is available...
; most modern scholars, however, consider Zhao Hun
Zhao Hun
Zhao Hun is a poem by Qu Yuan, and collected in the Chu Ci . The title is translated as Summons of the Soul, or Summoning of the Soul....
to be Qu Yuan's original work, whereas Yuan You
Yuan You
Yuan You is a poem attributed to Qu Yuan and published in the Chu Ci ....
, Pu Ju, and Yu Fu
Yu Fu
Yu Fu is a poem attributed to Qu Yuan and published in the Chu Ci ....
are believed to have been composed by others.
Translation into English
In addition to the translations by David Hawkes cited above, translations into English include:- Hawkes, David (translator). Chapter 5 in J. Minford & J. S. M. Lau (Eds.) (2000). Classical Chinese Literature: An Anthology of Translations, Vol. I: From Antiquity to the Tang Dynasty. New York: Columbia University PressColumbia University PressColumbia University Press is a university press based in New York City, and affiliated with Columbia University. It is currently directed by James D. Jordan and publishes titles in the humanities and sciences, including the fields of literary and cultural studies, history, social work, sociology,...
, ISBN 0-231-09676-3. - Sun Dayu (translator). (2007). Selected Poems of Chu Yuan (Chinese-English edition). Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press, ISBN 9787544604598.
- Waters, Geoffrey R.Geoffrey R. WatersGeoffrey R. Waters was an American poet, and translator.He served as a Field Artillery officer. He graduated from Vanderbilt University with a BA degree in History and Chinese, and from Indiana University with an MBA in Finance, and a PhD in Classical Chinese. He was a Senior Vice President at a...
Three Elegies of Ch'u: an Introduction to the Traditional Interpretation of the Ch'u Tz'u. University of Wisconsin Press, 1985. ISBN 9780299100308. - Gladys YangGladys YangGladys Yang was a British translator of Chinese literature, the wife of another noted translator Yang Xianyi...
and Xianyi YangYang XianyiYang Xianyi was a Chinese translator, known for rendering many ancient and a few modern Chinese classics into English, including Dream of the Red Chamber....
, Chu Ci Xuan Selected Elegies of the State of Chu. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 2001. ISBN 7119028901). - Fusheng Wu, “Sao Poetry,” pp. 36-58, in Zong-Qi Cai, ed., How to Read Chinese Poetry: A Guided Anthology. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008 ISBN 9780231139403. Background on the poems and their form; side by side columns of Chinese characters, pinyin pronunciation, and English translations for “The Lord of the Xiang River" (attrib. Qu Yuan), “The Lady of the Xiang River” (attrib. Qu Yuan), and “On Encountering Trouble” (Qu Yuan).