Circus of Maxentius
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The Circus of Maxentius (known until the 19th century as the Circus of Caracalla) is an ancient structure in Rome
, Italy; it is part of a complex of buildings erected by emperor Maxentius
on the Via Appia between AD 306 and 312. It is situated between the second and third miles of the Via Appia between the basilica and catacombs of San Sebastiano
and the imposing late republican tomb of Caecilia Metella
, which dominates the hill that rises immediately to the east of the complex.
The Circus itself is the best preserved of all Roman circuses, and is second only in size to the Circus Maximus
in Rome. The only games recorded at the circus were its inaugural ones and these are generally thought to have been funerary in character. They would have been held in honour of Maxentius' son Valerius Romulus
, who died in AD 309 at a very young age and who was probably interred in the adjacent cylindrical tomb (tomb of Romulus). The imperial box (pulvinar
) of the circus is connected, via a covered portico, to the villa of Maxentius, whose scant remains are today obscured by dense foliage, except for the apse of the basilical audience hall, which pokes out from the tree tops.
The circus is constructed, after the fashion of many Roman buildings of this period, in concrete faced with opus vittatum
. The putlog holes
which held the scaffolding are evident in many places in the walls, which stand several metres high in places. The modern-day visitor enters the circus from the west end, where the remains of the two still imposing towers are located. These would have contained the mechanism for raising the carceres (starting gates), which were positioned on an arcuated course between the towers. Once out of the gates, the chariots would race down the track, the full 503 m length of which can still be seen. The track was excavated in the 19th century by Nibby, whose discovery of an inscription to the 'divine Romulus' led to the circus being positively identified with Maxentius. The spina, the barrier running down the middle of the track, is exactly 1000 Roman feet (296 m) long, and would have been cased in marble. Its many ornaments, including cones, metae and obelisks, would have cast strange, Piranesi-esque shadows across the track in the late afternoon sun. In the centre stood the Obelisk of Domitian which Maxentius presumably had moved from the Isaeum as part of the tribute to his son. Covered in hieroglyphs and lying broken in five pieces it was much discussed during the Renaissance and engraved by Etienne du Perac among others. The Collector Earl of Arundel paid a deposit for the pieces in the 1630s and attempted to have them removed to London but Urban VIII forbad its export and his successor Innocent X had it erected in the Piazza Navona by Bernini. The track's outer walls were laid out to be wider at the start to allow the racers to spread out before reaching the spina, and were also made wider at the point of the turn, which accommodated the turning circle of the chariots. At the east end of the track is a small triumphal arch
, in which exposed opus vittatum work can be seen. The judges' box was located about two-thirds of the way down on the southern side of the track, where it would have been in clear sight of the finishing line. The imperial box, the remains of which are identifiable, was situated in the usual fashion to give the most dramatic views of the race. Directly opposite the imperial box, in the south track wall, there is a small arch, through which can be seen the Tomb of Caecilia Metella. From the height of the box the tomb would have been entirely visible, and it has been argued that the circus, which is curiously positioned relative to contemporary and existing structures, was purposely skewed in order to integrate the tomb into the Maxentian architectural scheme
The circus-complex of Maxentius as originally conceived can be partly understood as an elaborate imperial version of the type of elite residences that appear in Rome and throughout the provinces in late antiquity
, whose pretensions are evidenced in the regular presence of large audience halls, familial tombs and circus-shaped structures - the Villa Gordiani
, also in Rome, and the complex at Piazza Armerina
in Sicily, are two examples. The progenitor of these residences was of course the Palatine
complex in Rome, where Maxentius
himself made some alterations to the palace in which he played out public life. The most instructive imperial parallel for the Via Appia complex is that of Maxentius's contemporary Galerius
at Thessaloniki, though Diocletian's palace
at Split furnishes some useful comparisons.
The complex may well have changed in use and character following the death of Romulus; the mausoleum, surely intended for Maxentius himself, as were the mausolea built by Galerius and Diocletian
intended for themselves whilst still alive, now received as its occupant Maxentius' only son. The inaugural games became funeral games, and these, like the circus, were dedicated to the now deified Romulus. The pervasive emphasis of death and apotheosis
has led to the argument that the whole complex became overwhelmingly funerary in character from this point, and that the memorial references generated by Romulus extend, spatially and ideologically, to the heart of Rome.
The circus is under the care of the Soprintendenza Archeologia di Roma, and is open to the public. It is accessible via a bus which runs regularly from the metropolitana stop called Colli Albani. The most up-to-date guides, in English and Italian, are provided by Coarelli, but Claridge's account is also clear and succinct, as well as being relatively recent. For in-depth research and references, volume one of Steinby's Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae is the starting point.
Rome
Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...
, Italy; it is part of a complex of buildings erected by emperor Maxentius
Maxentius
Maxentius was a Roman Emperor from 306 to 312. He was the son of former Emperor Maximian, and the son-in-law of Emperor Galerius.-Birth and early life:Maxentius' exact date of birth is unknown; it was probably around 278...
on the Via Appia between AD 306 and 312. It is situated between the second and third miles of the Via Appia between the basilica and catacombs of San Sebastiano
San Sebastiano
San Sebastiano can refer to:* Saint Sebastian in Italian* San Sebastiano fuori le mura, a church in Rome* San Sebastiano al Palatino, a church in Rome* San Sebastiano , a church in Mantua, Italy* San Sebastiano , a church in Biella...
and the imposing late republican tomb of Caecilia Metella
Caecilia Metella
Caecilia Metella was the name of all women in the Caecilius Metellus family, since feminine names were taken from the father's gens and cognomen declined in the female form.The name may refer to the following people:* Caecilia Metella Dalmatica...
, which dominates the hill that rises immediately to the east of the complex.
The Circus itself is the best preserved of all Roman circuses, and is second only in size to the Circus Maximus
Circus Maximus
The Circus Maximus is an ancient Roman chariot racing stadium and mass entertainment venue located in Rome, Italy. Situated in the valley between the Aventine and Palatine hills, it was the first and largest stadium in ancient Rome and its later Empire...
in Rome. The only games recorded at the circus were its inaugural ones and these are generally thought to have been funerary in character. They would have been held in honour of Maxentius' son Valerius Romulus
Valerius Romulus
Valerius Romulus, also Marcus Aurelius Romulus was the son of the Caesar and later usurper Maxentius and of Valeria Maximilla, daughter of Emperor Galerius....
, who died in AD 309 at a very young age and who was probably interred in the adjacent cylindrical tomb (tomb of Romulus). The imperial box (pulvinar
Pulvinar
The pulvinar nuclei are a collection of nuclei located in the pulvinar thalamus. The pulvinar part is the most posterior region of the thalamus....
) of the circus is connected, via a covered portico, to the villa of Maxentius, whose scant remains are today obscured by dense foliage, except for the apse of the basilical audience hall, which pokes out from the tree tops.
The circus is constructed, after the fashion of many Roman buildings of this period, in concrete faced with opus vittatum
Opus vittatum
250px|thumb|Theatre of [[Augustus]] in [[Augusta Raurica]]. The steps are in opus vittatum.Opus vittatum was an ancient Roman construction technique, sometimes square with tuff blocks intersected by one or more brick-bands at regular or irregular distances, and Opus caementicium.This technique was...
. The putlog holes
Putlog holes
Putlog holes, as the name implies, are small holes that were intended to receive the ends of logs or squared wooden beams in the walls of buildings, especially in the Middle Ages....
which held the scaffolding are evident in many places in the walls, which stand several metres high in places. The modern-day visitor enters the circus from the west end, where the remains of the two still imposing towers are located. These would have contained the mechanism for raising the carceres (starting gates), which were positioned on an arcuated course between the towers. Once out of the gates, the chariots would race down the track, the full 503 m length of which can still be seen. The track was excavated in the 19th century by Nibby, whose discovery of an inscription to the 'divine Romulus' led to the circus being positively identified with Maxentius. The spina, the barrier running down the middle of the track, is exactly 1000 Roman feet (296 m) long, and would have been cased in marble. Its many ornaments, including cones, metae and obelisks, would have cast strange, Piranesi-esque shadows across the track in the late afternoon sun. In the centre stood the Obelisk of Domitian which Maxentius presumably had moved from the Isaeum as part of the tribute to his son. Covered in hieroglyphs and lying broken in five pieces it was much discussed during the Renaissance and engraved by Etienne du Perac among others. The Collector Earl of Arundel paid a deposit for the pieces in the 1630s and attempted to have them removed to London but Urban VIII forbad its export and his successor Innocent X had it erected in the Piazza Navona by Bernini. The track's outer walls were laid out to be wider at the start to allow the racers to spread out before reaching the spina, and were also made wider at the point of the turn, which accommodated the turning circle of the chariots. At the east end of the track is a small triumphal arch
Triumphal arch
A triumphal arch is a monumental structure in the shape of an archway with one or more arched passageways, often designed to span a road. In its simplest form a triumphal arch consists of two massive piers connected by an arch, crowned with a flat entablature or attic on which a statue might be...
, in which exposed opus vittatum work can be seen. The judges' box was located about two-thirds of the way down on the southern side of the track, where it would have been in clear sight of the finishing line. The imperial box, the remains of which are identifiable, was situated in the usual fashion to give the most dramatic views of the race. Directly opposite the imperial box, in the south track wall, there is a small arch, through which can be seen the Tomb of Caecilia Metella. From the height of the box the tomb would have been entirely visible, and it has been argued that the circus, which is curiously positioned relative to contemporary and existing structures, was purposely skewed in order to integrate the tomb into the Maxentian architectural scheme
The circus-complex of Maxentius as originally conceived can be partly understood as an elaborate imperial version of the type of elite residences that appear in Rome and throughout the provinces in late antiquity
Late Antiquity
Late Antiquity is a periodization used by historians to describe the time of transition from Classical Antiquity to the Middle Ages, in both mainland Europe and the Mediterranean world. Precise boundaries for the period are a matter of debate, but noted historian of the period Peter Brown proposed...
, whose pretensions are evidenced in the regular presence of large audience halls, familial tombs and circus-shaped structures - the Villa Gordiani
Villa Gordiani
Villa Gordiani is a park along the Via Prenestina, in Rome, Italy. It is home to several ancient Romans remains, traditionally identified with the villa of the Gordian imperial family, which included three Romans emperors of the 3rd century, Gordian I, Gordian II and Gordian III.-History:The...
, also in Rome, and the complex at Piazza Armerina
Piazza Armerina
Piazza Armerina is an Italian comune in the province of Enna of the autonomous island region of Sicily.-History:...
in Sicily, are two examples. The progenitor of these residences was of course the Palatine
Palatine
A palatine or palatinus is a high-level official attached to imperial or royal courts in Europe since Roman times...
complex in Rome, where Maxentius
Maxentius
Maxentius was a Roman Emperor from 306 to 312. He was the son of former Emperor Maximian, and the son-in-law of Emperor Galerius.-Birth and early life:Maxentius' exact date of birth is unknown; it was probably around 278...
himself made some alterations to the palace in which he played out public life. The most instructive imperial parallel for the Via Appia complex is that of Maxentius's contemporary Galerius
Galerius
Galerius , was Roman Emperor from 305 to 311. During his reign he campaigned, aided by Diocletian, against the Sassanid Empire, sacking their capital Ctesiphon in 299. He also campaigned across the Danube against the Carpi, defeating them in 297 and 300...
at Thessaloniki, though Diocletian's palace
Diocletian's Palace
Diocletian's Palace is a building in Split, Croatia, that was built by the Roman emperor Diocletian at the turn of the fourth century AD.Diocletian built the massive palace in preparation for his retirement on 1 May 305 AD. It lies in a bay on the south side of a short peninsula running out from...
at Split furnishes some useful comparisons.
The complex may well have changed in use and character following the death of Romulus; the mausoleum, surely intended for Maxentius himself, as were the mausolea built by Galerius and Diocletian
Diocletian
Diocletian |latinized]] upon his accession to Diocletian . c. 22 December 244 – 3 December 311), was a Roman Emperor from 284 to 305....
intended for themselves whilst still alive, now received as its occupant Maxentius' only son. The inaugural games became funeral games, and these, like the circus, were dedicated to the now deified Romulus. The pervasive emphasis of death and apotheosis
Apotheosis
Apotheosis is the glorification of a subject to divine level. The term has meanings in theology, where it refers to a belief, and in art, where it refers to a genre.In theology, the term apotheosis refers to the idea that an individual has been raised to godlike stature...
has led to the argument that the whole complex became overwhelmingly funerary in character from this point, and that the memorial references generated by Romulus extend, spatially and ideologically, to the heart of Rome.
The circus is under the care of the Soprintendenza Archeologia di Roma, and is open to the public. It is accessible via a bus which runs regularly from the metropolitana stop called Colli Albani. The most up-to-date guides, in English and Italian, are provided by Coarelli, but Claridge's account is also clear and succinct, as well as being relatively recent. For in-depth research and references, volume one of Steinby's Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae is the starting point.