Cleomenes III
Encyclopedia
Cleomenes III was the King of Sparta
from 235-222 BC. He succeeded to the Agiad throne of Sparta
after his father, Leonidas II
in 235 BC.
From 229 BC to 222 BC, Cleomenes waged war against the Achaean League
under Aratus of Sicyon
. Domestically, he is known for his attempt to reform the Spartan state. After being defeated by the Acheans in the Battle of Sellasia
in 222 BC, he fled to
Ptolemaic Egypt
. After a failed revolt in 219 BC, he committed suicide.
and his wife Cratesicleia and was part of the Agiad dynasty. The exact year of Cleomenes' birth is unknown but historian Peter Green
puts it between 265 BC and 260 BC.
In around 242 BC, Leonidas was exiled from Sparta and forced to seek refuge in the temple of Athena after opposing the reforms of the Eurypontid King, Agis IV
. Cleomenes' brother-in-law, Cleombrotus, who was a supporter of Agis, became king. Meanwhile, Agis, having started his reforms went on a campaign near the Isthmus of Corinth
which presented Leonidas with an opportunity to regain his throne. He quickly desposed of Cleombrotus and when Agis returned to Sparta, he had him captured and executed.
Following the execution of Agis, Cleomenes - who was around eighteen at the time - was made by his father to marry Agis' widow, Agiatis, who was a wealthy heiress
. According to legend, Cleomenes was hunting when his father sent him a message telling him to return immediately to Sparta. When he returned to the city, he saw that it was being decorated for a wedding and when he asked his father who was getting married, his father replied that Cleomenes was. It was reported that Cleomenes was doubtful about the marriage because his father had Agiatis' husband executed. The marriage worked out and Agiatis told Cleomenes about Agis and his plan.
On the death of his father, Cleomenes ascended the throne of Sparta in 235 BC. Cleomenes had been inspired by Agis and began reforms. Meanwhile, the Achaean League
under the command of Aratus of Sicyon
was trying to unite all of the Peloponnese
. Upon hearing of Leonidas' death, Aratus began attacking the cities of Arcadia
which bordered Achaea. Plutarch says that Aratus made these moves to see how Sparta stood inclined.
In 229 BC, the cities of Tegea
, Mantinea, Caphyae
and Orchomenus
- who where allied with the Aetolian League - come over to Sparta. Historians Polybius
and Sir William Smith claim that Cleomenes seized these cities by treachery; however the translator of Plutarch on Sparta, Richard Talbert, claims he did so at their own request. Later that year, the ephors sent Cleomenes to seize Athenaeum, a border fort on the Spartan border with Megalopolis
which was being disputed by both cities; Cleomenes seized the fort and fortified it. Meanwhile, the Achaean League summoned a meeting of its assembly and declared war against Sparta. In retaliation for fortifing the fort, Aratus made a night attack on Tegea and Orchomenus but when his supporters on the inside failed to help, he retreated hoping to remain unnoticed.
Cleomenes discovered the attempted night attack, and sent a message to Aratus asking the purpose of the expedition. Aratus replied that he had come to stop Cleomenes fortifing Athenaeum. Cleomenes responded to this by saying: "if it's all the same to you, write and tell me why you brought along those torches and ladders."
with an army of 5,000 men before being confronted by the new strategos
of the Achaean League, Aristomachos of Argos
, and his army of consisting of 20,000 infantry
and 1,000 cavalry
at Pallantium
. Aratus, who accompanied Aristomachos as an adviser, advised him to retreat. Smith agrees with Aratus' assessment that 20,000 Achaeans were no match for 5,000 Spartans.
This success greatly encouraged Cleomenes and when he heard that Aratus was attacking Sparta's ally, Elis
, he set off to confront them. The Spartan army fell upon the Achaean army near Mount Lycaeum and rout
ed it. Aratus took advantage of a rumour saying that he had been killed in the battle and seized Mantinea. His blow took the war spirit out of the Spartans and they began to oppose Cleomenes' war effort.
Meanwhile, the Eurypontid King of Sparta, Eudamidas III, who was the son of Agis IV and Agiatis died. Cleomenes' recalled his uncle, who had fled after Agis' execution to Messene
to assume the throne. However, as soon as he returned to Sparta he was assassinated. Cleomenes' part in the assassination
is unknown with Polybius claiming that he ordered it, but Plutarch disagrees.
Having bribed the ephors to allow him to continue campaigning, Cleomenes advanced into the territory of Megalopolis and started to besiege the village of Leuctra
. As Cleomenes was besieging the village, an Achaean army under the command of Aratus attacked the Spartans. In the initial attack, the Spartans were repelled. However, Lydiadas of Megalopolis
, the cavalry commander, disobeyed Aratus' order not to pursue the Spartans. As the cavalry scattered as they were trying to cross some difficult terrain, Cleomenes' skirmishers managed to defeat them. Encouraged by this counter-attack, the Spartans charged the main body of the Achaean army and routed them.
Confident of his strong position, Cleomenes began plotting against the ephors. After gaining the support of his stepfather, he embarked his opponents with him on a whirlwind military expedition and when they requested to stay in Arcadia due to exhaustion he returned to Sparta to carry out his plan. When he reached the city, he sent some of his loyal followers to kill the ephors. Four of the ephors were killed, while the fifth, Agylaeus, managed to escape and seek sanctuary in a temple.
Having removed the ephors, Cleomenes began his reforms. He first handed over all his land to the state
; he was soon followed by his stepfather and his friends and the rest of the citizens. He divided up all the land and gave an equal lot to every citizen. To increase the declining Spartan citizen body, he made some perioeci, citizens. He trained 4,000 hoplites and restored the ancient Spartan military
and social discipline as well as equipping his army with the Macedonian sarissa
(pike) which greatly strengthened the army.
, Cleomenes was defeated in the Battle of Sellasia
by the Achaeans, who received military aid from Antigonus III Doson
of Macedon
. Cleomenes left Sparta and sought refuge at Alexandria with Ptolemy Euergetes of Egypt
, hoping for assistance to regain his throne.
However, when Ptolemy died, his son and successor, Ptolemy Philopator neglected Cleomenes and eventually put him under house arrest. Together with his friends, he escaped his house arrest in 219 BC and tried to incite a revolt. When he received no support from the population of Alexandria
, he avoided capture by committing suicide
. Thus died the man who nearly conquered all of the Peloponnese and is described by William Smith as "the last truly great man of Sparta, and, excepting perhaps Philopoemen, of all Greece."
Kings of Sparta
Sparta was an important Greek city-state in the Peloponnesus. It was unusual among Greek city-states in that it maintained its kingship past the Archaic age. It was even more unusual in that it had two kings simultaneously, coming from two separate lines...
from 235-222 BC. He succeeded to the Agiad throne of Sparta
Sparta
Sparta or Lacedaemon, was a prominent city-state in ancient Greece, situated on the banks of the River Eurotas in Laconia, in south-eastern Peloponnese. It emerged as a political entity around the 10th century BC, when the invading Dorians subjugated the local, non-Dorian population. From c...
after his father, Leonidas II
Leonidas II
Leonidas II , was Agiad King of Sparta from 254 to 235 BC. He was raised at the Persian Court, and according to Plutarch's Life of Agis IV, he married a Persian woman. According to other sources, this non-Spartan wife was actually a Seleucid, possibly the daughter of Seleucus I Nicator by his...
in 235 BC.
From 229 BC to 222 BC, Cleomenes waged war against the Achaean League
Achaean League
The Achaean League was a Hellenistic era confederation of Greek city states on the northern and central Peloponnese, which existed between 280 BC and 146 BC...
under Aratus of Sicyon
Aratus of Sicyon
Aratus was a statesman of the ancient Greek city-state of Sicyon and a leader of the Achaean League. He deposed the Sicyonian tyrant Nicocles in 251 BC. Aratus was an advocate of Greek unity and brought Sicyon into the Achaean League, which he led to its maximum extent...
. Domestically, he is known for his attempt to reform the Spartan state. After being defeated by the Acheans in the Battle of Sellasia
Battle of Sellasia
The Battle of Sellasia took place during the summer of 222 BC between the armies of Macedon and the Achaean League, led by Antigonus III Doson, and Sparta under the command of King Cleomenes III...
in 222 BC, he fled to
Ptolemaic Egypt
Ptolemaic Egypt
Ptolemaic Egypt began when Ptolemy I Soter invaded Egypt and declared himself Pharaoh of Egypt in 305 BC and ended with the death of queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt and the Roman conquest in 30 BC. The Ptolemaic Kingdom was a powerful Hellenistic state, extending from southern Syria in the east, to...
. After a failed revolt in 219 BC, he committed suicide.
Early life
Cleomenes was born in Sparta to King Leonidas IILeonidas II
Leonidas II , was Agiad King of Sparta from 254 to 235 BC. He was raised at the Persian Court, and according to Plutarch's Life of Agis IV, he married a Persian woman. According to other sources, this non-Spartan wife was actually a Seleucid, possibly the daughter of Seleucus I Nicator by his...
and his wife Cratesicleia and was part of the Agiad dynasty. The exact year of Cleomenes' birth is unknown but historian Peter Green
Peter Green (historian)
Peter Green is a British classical scholar noted for his works on Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age of ancient history, generally regarded as spanning the era from the death of Alexander in 323 BC up to either the date of the Battle of Actium or the death of Augustus in 14 AD...
puts it between 265 BC and 260 BC.
In around 242 BC, Leonidas was exiled from Sparta and forced to seek refuge in the temple of Athena after opposing the reforms of the Eurypontid King, Agis IV
Agis IV
Agis IV , the elder son of Eudamidas II, was the 24th king of the Eurypontid dynasty of Sparta. Posterity has reckoned him an idealistic but impractical monarch.-Succession:...
. Cleomenes' brother-in-law, Cleombrotus, who was a supporter of Agis, became king. Meanwhile, Agis, having started his reforms went on a campaign near the Isthmus of Corinth
Isthmus of Corinth
The Isthmus of Corinth is the narrow land bridge which connects the Peloponnese peninsula with the rest of the mainland of Greece, near the city of Corinth. The word "isthmus" comes from the Ancient Greek word for "neck" and refers to the narrowness of the land. The Isthmus was known in the ancient...
which presented Leonidas with an opportunity to regain his throne. He quickly desposed of Cleombrotus and when Agis returned to Sparta, he had him captured and executed.
Following the execution of Agis, Cleomenes - who was around eighteen at the time - was made by his father to marry Agis' widow, Agiatis, who was a wealthy heiress
Epikleros
Epikleros was the term used to describe an heiress in ancient Athens, and in other ancient Greek city states. It denoted a daughter of a man who had no male heirs. In Sparta they were called patroiouchoi , as they were in Gortyn...
. According to legend, Cleomenes was hunting when his father sent him a message telling him to return immediately to Sparta. When he returned to the city, he saw that it was being decorated for a wedding and when he asked his father who was getting married, his father replied that Cleomenes was. It was reported that Cleomenes was doubtful about the marriage because his father had Agiatis' husband executed. The marriage worked out and Agiatis told Cleomenes about Agis and his plan.
Early years
| "Upon this, Cleomenes wrote to him, in a familiar way, desiring to know, "Whether he marched the night before." Aratus answered, "That, understanding his design to fortify Belbina, the intent of his last motion was to prevent that measure." Cleomenes humorously replied, "I am satisfied with the account of your march; but should be glad to know where those torches and ladders were marching." |
| The conversation between Cleomenes and Aratus according to Plutarch. |
On the death of his father, Cleomenes ascended the throne of Sparta in 235 BC. Cleomenes had been inspired by Agis and began reforms. Meanwhile, the Achaean League
Achaean League
The Achaean League was a Hellenistic era confederation of Greek city states on the northern and central Peloponnese, which existed between 280 BC and 146 BC...
under the command of Aratus of Sicyon
Aratus of Sicyon
Aratus was a statesman of the ancient Greek city-state of Sicyon and a leader of the Achaean League. He deposed the Sicyonian tyrant Nicocles in 251 BC. Aratus was an advocate of Greek unity and brought Sicyon into the Achaean League, which he led to its maximum extent...
was trying to unite all of the Peloponnese
Peloponnese
The Peloponnese, Peloponnesos or Peloponnesus , is a large peninsula , located in a region of southern Greece, forming the part of the country south of the Gulf of Corinth...
. Upon hearing of Leonidas' death, Aratus began attacking the cities of Arcadia
Arcadia
Arcadia is one of the regional units of Greece. It is part of the administrative region of Peloponnese. It is situated in the central and eastern part of the Peloponnese peninsula. It takes its name from the mythological character Arcas. In Greek mythology, it was the home of the god Pan...
which bordered Achaea. Plutarch says that Aratus made these moves to see how Sparta stood inclined.
In 229 BC, the cities of Tegea
Tegea
Tegea was a settlement in ancient Greece, and it is also a former municipality in Arcadia, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Tripoli, of which it is a municipal unit. Its seat was the village Stadio....
, Mantinea, Caphyae
Caphyae
Caphyae or Kaphyai , was an ancient city of Arcadia situated in a small plain, northwest of the lake of Orchomenus. It was protected against inundations from this lake by a mound or dyke, raised by the inhabitants of Caphyae...
and Orchomenus
Orchomenus
-Greek mythology:*Orchomenus, a king, the father of Elara*Orchomenus, one of the twenty sons of Lycaon*Orchomenus, son of Zeus and Isonoe, father of Minyas and Kyparissos*Orchomenus, a son of Athamas and Themisto-Ancient Greek geography:...
- who where allied with the Aetolian League - come over to Sparta. Historians Polybius
Polybius
Polybius , Greek ) was a Greek historian of the Hellenistic Period noted for his work, The Histories, which covered the period of 220–146 BC in detail. The work describes in part the rise of the Roman Republic and its gradual domination over Greece...
and Sir William Smith claim that Cleomenes seized these cities by treachery; however the translator of Plutarch on Sparta, Richard Talbert, claims he did so at their own request. Later that year, the ephors sent Cleomenes to seize Athenaeum, a border fort on the Spartan border with Megalopolis
Megalopolis, Greece
Megalópoli is a town in the western part of the peripheral unit of Arcadia, southern Greece. It is located in the same site as ancient Megalopolis . "Megalopolis" is a Greek word for Great city. When it was founded, in 371 BC, it was the first urbanization in rustic and primitive Arcadia. In...
which was being disputed by both cities; Cleomenes seized the fort and fortified it. Meanwhile, the Achaean League summoned a meeting of its assembly and declared war against Sparta. In retaliation for fortifing the fort, Aratus made a night attack on Tegea and Orchomenus but when his supporters on the inside failed to help, he retreated hoping to remain unnoticed.
Cleomenes discovered the attempted night attack, and sent a message to Aratus asking the purpose of the expedition. Aratus replied that he had come to stop Cleomenes fortifing Athenaeum. Cleomenes responded to this by saying: "if it's all the same to you, write and tell me why you brought along those torches and ladders."
Cleomenean War
Cleomenes advanced into Arcadia before being called back by the ephors. When Aratus captured Caphyae, the ephors sent him out again. He ravaged the territory of ArgosArgos
Argos is a city and a former municipality in Argolis, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Argos-Mykines, of which it is a municipal unit. It is 11 kilometres from Nafplion, which was its historic harbour...
with an army of 5,000 men before being confronted by the new strategos
Strategos
Strategos, plural strategoi, is used in Greek to mean "general". In the Hellenistic and Byzantine Empires the term was also used to describe a military governor...
of the Achaean League, Aristomachos of Argos
Aristomachos of Argos
Aristomachos of Argos was a general of the Achaean League in Ancient Greece who served only for a year, 228 BC - 227 BC....
, and his army of consisting of 20,000 infantry
Infantry
Infantrymen are soldiers who are specifically trained for the role of fighting on foot to engage the enemy face to face and have historically borne the brunt of the casualties of combat in wars. As the oldest branch of combat arms, they are the backbone of armies...
and 1,000 cavalry
Cavalry
Cavalry or horsemen were soldiers or warriors who fought mounted on horseback. Cavalry were historically the third oldest and the most mobile of the combat arms...
at Pallantium
Pallantium
Pallantium was an ancient city near the Tiber river on the Italian peninsula. Roman mythology, as recounted in Virgil's Aeneid for example, states that the city was founded by Evander of Pallene and other ancient Greeks sometime previous to the Trojan War...
. Aratus, who accompanied Aristomachos as an adviser, advised him to retreat. Smith agrees with Aratus' assessment that 20,000 Achaeans were no match for 5,000 Spartans.
This success greatly encouraged Cleomenes and when he heard that Aratus was attacking Sparta's ally, Elis
Elis
Elis, or Eleia is an ancient district that corresponds with the modern Elis peripheral unit...
, he set off to confront them. The Spartan army fell upon the Achaean army near Mount Lycaeum and rout
Rout
A rout is commonly defined as a chaotic and disorderly retreat or withdrawal of troops from a battlefield, resulting in the victory of the opposing party, or following defeat, a collapse of discipline, or poor morale. A routed army often degenerates into a sense of "every man for himself" as the...
ed it. Aratus took advantage of a rumour saying that he had been killed in the battle and seized Mantinea. His blow took the war spirit out of the Spartans and they began to oppose Cleomenes' war effort.
Meanwhile, the Eurypontid King of Sparta, Eudamidas III, who was the son of Agis IV and Agiatis died. Cleomenes' recalled his uncle, who had fled after Agis' execution to Messene
Messene
Messene , officially Ancient Messene, is a Local Community of the Municipal Unit , Ithomi, of the municipality of Messini within the Regional Unit of Messenia in the Region of Peloponnēsos, one of 7 Regions into which the Hellenic Republic has been divided by the Kallikratis...
to assume the throne. However, as soon as he returned to Sparta he was assassinated. Cleomenes' part in the assassination
Assassination
To carry out an assassination is "to murder by a sudden and/or secret attack, often for political reasons." Alternatively, assassination may be defined as "the act of deliberately killing someone, especially a public figure, usually for hire or for political reasons."An assassination may be...
is unknown with Polybius claiming that he ordered it, but Plutarch disagrees.
Having bribed the ephors to allow him to continue campaigning, Cleomenes advanced into the territory of Megalopolis and started to besiege the village of Leuctra
Leuctra
Leuctra was a village in ancient Greece, in Boeotia, seven miles southwest of Thebes. It is primarily known today as the site of the important 371 BC Battle of Leuctra in which the Thebans, under Epaminondas, defeated the Spartans...
. As Cleomenes was besieging the village, an Achaean army under the command of Aratus attacked the Spartans. In the initial attack, the Spartans were repelled. However, Lydiadas of Megalopolis
Lydiadas of Megalopolis
Lydiadas of Megalopolis was the seventh, ninth and eleventh general of the Achaean League in Ancient Greece who served three terms from, 234 - 233, 232-231 and 230 to 229 BC....
, the cavalry commander, disobeyed Aratus' order not to pursue the Spartans. As the cavalry scattered as they were trying to cross some difficult terrain, Cleomenes' skirmishers managed to defeat them. Encouraged by this counter-attack, the Spartans charged the main body of the Achaean army and routed them.
Confident of his strong position, Cleomenes began plotting against the ephors. After gaining the support of his stepfather, he embarked his opponents with him on a whirlwind military expedition and when they requested to stay in Arcadia due to exhaustion he returned to Sparta to carry out his plan. When he reached the city, he sent some of his loyal followers to kill the ephors. Four of the ephors were killed, while the fifth, Agylaeus, managed to escape and seek sanctuary in a temple.
Having removed the ephors, Cleomenes began his reforms. He first handed over all his land to the state
Sovereign state
A sovereign state, or simply, state, is a state with a defined territory on which it exercises internal and external sovereignty, a permanent population, a government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other sovereign states. It is also normally understood to be a state which is neither...
; he was soon followed by his stepfather and his friends and the rest of the citizens. He divided up all the land and gave an equal lot to every citizen. To increase the declining Spartan citizen body, he made some perioeci, citizens. He trained 4,000 hoplites and restored the ancient Spartan military
Military
A military is an organization authorized by its greater society to use lethal force, usually including use of weapons, in defending its country by combating actual or perceived threats. The military may have additional functions of use to its greater society, such as advancing a political agenda e.g...
and social discipline as well as equipping his army with the Macedonian sarissa
Sarissa
The sarissa or sarisa was a 4 to 7 meter long spear used in the ancient Greek and Hellenistic warfare. It was introduced by Philip II of Macedon and was used in the traditional Greek phalanx formation as a replacement for the earlier dory, which was considerably shorter. The phalanxes of Philip...
(pike) which greatly strengthened the army.
Defeat and exile
In 222 BC222 BC
Year 222 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Marcellus and Calvus...
, Cleomenes was defeated in the Battle of Sellasia
Battle of Sellasia
The Battle of Sellasia took place during the summer of 222 BC between the armies of Macedon and the Achaean League, led by Antigonus III Doson, and Sparta under the command of King Cleomenes III...
by the Achaeans, who received military aid from Antigonus III Doson
Antigonus III Doson
Antigonus III Doson was king of Macedon from 229 BC to 221 BC. He belonged to the Antigonid dynasty.-Family Background:He was a grandson of Demetrius Poliorcetes and cousin of Demetrius II, who after the latter died in battle and rescued Macedonia and restored Antigonid control of Greece...
of Macedon
Macedon
Macedonia or Macedon was an ancient kingdom, centered in the northeastern part of the Greek peninsula, bordered by Epirus to the west, Paeonia to the north, the region of Thrace to the east and Thessaly to the south....
. Cleomenes left Sparta and sought refuge at Alexandria with Ptolemy Euergetes of Egypt
Ptolemaic Egypt
Ptolemaic Egypt began when Ptolemy I Soter invaded Egypt and declared himself Pharaoh of Egypt in 305 BC and ended with the death of queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt and the Roman conquest in 30 BC. The Ptolemaic Kingdom was a powerful Hellenistic state, extending from southern Syria in the east, to...
, hoping for assistance to regain his throne.
However, when Ptolemy died, his son and successor, Ptolemy Philopator neglected Cleomenes and eventually put him under house arrest. Together with his friends, he escaped his house arrest in 219 BC and tried to incite a revolt. When he received no support from the population of Alexandria
Alexandria
Alexandria is the second-largest city of Egypt, with a population of 4.1 million, extending about along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the north central part of the country; it is also the largest city lying directly on the Mediterranean coast. It is Egypt's largest seaport, serving...
, he avoided capture by committing suicide
Suicide
Suicide is the act of intentionally causing one's own death. Suicide is often committed out of despair or attributed to some underlying mental disorder, such as depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, alcoholism, or drug abuse...
. Thus died the man who nearly conquered all of the Peloponnese and is described by William Smith as "the last truly great man of Sparta, and, excepting perhaps Philopoemen, of all Greece."
Cleomenes in Fiction
For an idiosyncratic but historically accurate fictional telling of Cleomenes' life and death, see Naomi Mitchison's "The Corn King and The Spring Queen" (reference given). He is also the subject (under the name Kleomenis) of two poems by modern Greek poet Constantine Cavafy, 1928's "In Sparta" and 1929's "Come, O King of the Lacedaimonians". Both of these dwell on the humiliation of his defeat by Ptolemy. Cleomenes is also one of the characters in the book Krol Agis (King Agis) by the Polish writer Halina Rudnicka, and he is the main character in the two following books by the same author Syn Heraklesa (Heracles' son) and Heros w okowach (Hero in manackles).Primary sources
- PlutarchPlutarchPlutarch then named, on his becoming a Roman citizen, Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus , c. 46 – 120 AD, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist known primarily for his Parallel Lives and Moralia...
, translated by Richard Talbert, (1988). Life of Agis. New York: Penguin Classics. ISBN 0-14-044463-7. - PlutarchPlutarchPlutarch then named, on his becoming a Roman citizen, Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus , c. 46 – 120 AD, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist known primarily for his Parallel Lives and Moralia...
, translated by Richard Talbert, (1988). Life of Cleomenes. New York: Penguin Classics. ISBN 0-14-044463-7. - PlutarchPlutarchPlutarch then named, on his becoming a Roman citizen, Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus , c. 46 – 120 AD, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist known primarily for his Parallel Lives and Moralia...
, translated by Richard Talbert, (1988). Plutarch on Sparta. New York: Penguin Classics. ISBN 0-14-044463-7 - PolybiusPolybiusPolybius , Greek ) was a Greek historian of the Hellenistic Period noted for his work, The Histories, which covered the period of 220–146 BC in detail. The work describes in part the rise of the Roman Republic and its gradual domination over Greece...
, translated by Frank W. Walbank, (1979). The Rise of the Roman Empire. New York: Penguin Classics. ISBN 0-14-044362-2.
Secondary Sources
- Green, PeterPeter Green (historian)Peter Green is a British classical scholar noted for his works on Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age of ancient history, generally regarded as spanning the era from the death of Alexander in 323 BC up to either the date of the Battle of Actium or the death of Augustus in 14 AD...
(1990). Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age. Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 0-500-01485-X.