Common ethanol fuel mixtures
Encyclopedia
There are several common ethanol fuel mixtures in use around the world. The use of pure hydrous or anhydrous ethanol in internal combustion engine
s (ICE) is only possible if the engine is designed or modified for that purpose. Anhydrous ethanol can be blended with gasoline
(petrol) in various ratios for use in unmodified gasoline engines, and with minor modifications can also be used with a higher content of ethanol.
Ethanol fuel mixtures have "E" numbers which describe the percentage of ethanol fuel
in the mixture by volume, for example, E85 is 85% anhydrous
ethanol and 15% gasoline. Low ethanol blends, from E5 to E25, are also known as gasohol, though internationally the most common use of the term gasohol refers to the E10 blend.
Blends of E10 or less are used in more than twenty countries around the world by 2011, led by the United States, where almost all retail gasoline sold in 2010 was blended with 10% of ethanol. Blends from E20 to E25 have been used in Brazil since the late 1970s. E85 is commonly used in the U.S. and Europe for flexible-fuel vehicle
s. Hydrous ethanol or E100 is used in Brazilian neat ethanol vehicles and flex-fuel light vehicles and in hydrous E15 called hE15 for modern petrol cars in Netherlands.
mixture of 10% anhydrous
ethanol and 90% gasoline that can be used in the internal combustion engine
s of most modern automobile
s and light-duty vehicles without need for any modification on the engine or fuel system. E10 blends are typically rated as 2 to 3 octane higher than regular gasoline and are approved for use in all new US automobiles, and are mandated in some areas for emissions and other reasons. The E10 blend and lower ethanol content mixtures have been used in several countries, and its use has been primarily driven by the several world energy crises that have taken place since the 1973 oil crisis
.
Other common blends include E5 and E7. These concentrations are generally safe for recent engines that run on pure gasoline. As of 2006, mandates for blending bioethanol into vehicle fuels had been enacted in at least 36 states/provinces and 17 countries at the national level, with most mandates requiring a blend of 10 to 15% ethanol with gasoline.
One way to measure alternative fuels in the US is the "gasoline-equivalent gallons" (GEG). In 2002, the U.S. used as fuel an amount of ethanol equal to 137,000 terajoules
(TJ), the energy equivalent of 1.13 billion gallons (4.3 billion liters) of gasoline. This was less than 1% of the total fuel used that year.
E10 and other blends of ethanol are considered to be useful in decreasing US dependence on foreign oil, and can reduce carbon monoxide
(CO) emissions by 20 to 30% under the right conditions. Although E10 does decrease emissions of CO and greenhouse gases such as CO2 by an estimated 2% over regular gasoline, it can cause increases in evaporative emissions and some pollutants depending on factors like the age of the vehicle and weather conditions. According to the Philippine Department of Energy, the use of not more than a 10% ethanol-gasoline mixture is not harmful to cars' fuel systems. Generally, automobile gasoline containing alcohol (ethanol or methanol) is not allowed to be used in U.S. certificated aircraft.
A 2011 study conducted by VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland
found there is practically no difference in fuel consumption in normal driving conditions between commercial gasoline grades 95E10 and 98E5 sold in Finland, despite the public perception that fuel consumption is significantly higher with 95E10. VTT performed the comparison test under controlled laboratory conditions and their measurements show that the cars tested used an average of 10.3 liters of 95E10 per 100 km (62.1 mi), as opposed to 10.23 liters of 98E5 per 100 km (62.1 mi). The difference was 0.07 in favor of 98E5 on average, meaning that using 95E10 gasoline, which has a higher ethanol content, increases consumption by 0.7%. When the measurements are normalized, the difference becomes 1.0%, a result that is highly consistent with an estimation of calorific values based on approximate fuel composition, which came out at 1.1% in favour of E5.
As a result of the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007
, which mandates an increase in renewable fuels for the transport sector, the U.S. Department of Energy began assessments for the feasibility of using intermediate ethanol blends in the existing vehicle fleet as a way to allow higher consumption of ethanol fuel. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory
(NREL) conducted tests to evaluate the potential impacts of intermediate ethanol blends on legacy vehicles and other engines. In a preliminary report released in October 2008, the NREL presented the results of the first evaluations of the effects of E10, E15 and E20 gasoline blends on tailpipe and evaporative emissions, catalyst and engine durability, vehicle driveability, engine operability, and vehicle and engine materials. This preliminary report found that none of the vehicles displayed a malfunction indicator light as a result of the ethanol blend used; no fuel filter plugging symptoms were observed; no cold start problems were observed at 24 °C (75.2 °F) and 10 °C (50 °F) laboratory conditions; and as expected, all test vehicles exhibited a loss in fuel economy proportional with the lower energy density of ethanol, for example, with E20, the average reduction in fuel economy was 7.7% when compared to the miles per gallon achieved by the gasoline only (E0) test vehicles.
In March 2009 a lobbying group from the ethanol industry, Growth Energy, formally requested the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to allow the ethanol content in gasoline to be increased to 15 percent from 10 percent. Organizations doing such studies included the Energy Department, the State of Minnesota, the Renewable Fuels Association
, the Rochester Institute of Technology
, the Minnesota Center for Automotive Research, and Stockholm University
in Sweden.
In October 2010 the EPA granted a waiver to allow up to 15% of ethanol blended with gasoline to be sold only for cars and light pickup trucks with a model year of 2007 or later, representing about 15% of vehicles on the U.S. roads. In January 2011 the waiver was expanded to authorize use of E15 to include model year 2001 through 2006 passenger vehicles. The EPA also decided not to grant any waiver for E15 use in any motorcycles, heavy-duty vehicles, or non-road engines because current testing data does not support such a waiver. According to the Renewable Fuels Association the E15 waivers now cover 62% of vehicles on the road in the US, and the ethanol group estimates that if all 2001 and newer cars and pickups were to use E15, the theoretical blend wall for ethanol use would be approximately 17.5 billion gallons (66.2 billion liters) per year. EPA is still studying if older cars can withstand a 15 percent ethanol blend.
As EPA waiver authorize but does not require stations to offer E15, a practical barrier to the commercialization of the higher blend is the lack of infrastructure, similar to the limitations suffered by sales of E85
, as most fuel stations do not have enough pumps to offer the new blend, few existing pumps are certified to dispense E15, and there are no dedicated tanks readily available to store E15. Also some state and federal regulations would have to change before E15 can be legally sold. The National Association of Convenience Stores, which represents most gasoline retailers, considers that the potential for actual E15 demand is small “because the auto industry is not embracing the fuel and is not adjusting their warranties or recommendations for the fuel type." One possible solution to the infrastructure barriers is the introduction of blender pumps that allow consumers to turn a dial to select the level of ethanol, which would also allow owners of flexible-fuel cars to buy E85 fuel.
In June 2011 EPA, in cooperation with the Federal Trade Commission
, issued its final ruling regarding the E15 warning label that is required to be displayed in all E15 fuel dispensers in the U.S. to inform consumers about what vehicles can, and what vehicles and equipment cannot, use the E15 blend. Both the Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers
and the National Petrochemical and Refiners Association
complained that relying solely on this warning label is not enough to protect consumers from misfueling.
According to the Brazilian ANP specification hydrous ethanol contains up to 4.9 vol.% water. In hE15 this would be up to 0.74 vol.% water in the overall mixture. “Water injection” has additional positive effects on the engine performance (thermodynamic efficiency) and also reduces emissions.
Overall, a transition from anhydrous to hydrous ethanol for gasoline blending is expected to make a significant contribution to ethanol’s cost-competitiveness, fuel cycle net energy balance, air quality and greenhouse gas emissions.
The level of blending above 10 % (V/V) is chosen both from a technical (safety) perspective and to distinguish the product in Europe from regular unleaded petrol for reasons of taxes and customer clarity. Small scale tests have shown that many vehicles with modern engine types can run smoothly on this hydrous ethanol blend. Mixed tanking scenarios with anhydrous ethanol blends at 5% or 10% level do not induce phase separation.
As avoiding mixing with E0, in particular at extremely low temperatures, in logistic systems and engines is not recommended, a separate specification for controlled usage is presented in a Netherlands Technical Agreement NTA 8115 (not published yet). The NTA 8115 is written for a worldwide application in trading and fuel blending.
E20 contains 20% ethanol and 80% gasoline, while E25 contains 25% ethanol. These blends have been widely used in Brazil
since the late seventies. As a response to the 1973 oil crisis
, the Brazilian government made mandatory the blend of ethanol fuel
with gasoline, fluctuating between 10% to 22% from 1976 until 1992. Due to this mandatory minimum gasoline blend, pure gasoline (E0) is no longer sold in Brazil. A federal law was passed in October 1993 establishing a mandatory blend of 22% anhydrous
ethanol (E22) in the entire country. This law also authorized the Executive to set different percentages of ethanol within pre-established boundaries, and since 2003 these limits were fixed at a maximum of 25% (E25) and a minimum of 20% (E20) by volume. Since then, the government has set the percentage on the ethanol blend according to the results of the sugarcane
harvest and ethanol production from sugarcane, resulting in blend variations even within the same year.
Since July 1, 2007 the mandatory blend was set at 25% of anhydrous
ethanol (E25) by Executive Decree, and this has been the standard gasoline blend sold throughout Brazil
most of the time as of 2011. However, as a result of a supply shortage and the resulting high ethanol fuel prices, in 2010 the government mandated a temporary 90-day blend reduction from E25 to E20 beginning February 1, 2010. As prices rose abruptly again due to supply shortages that took place again between the 2010-2011 harvest seasons, some ethanol had to be imported from the United States, and in April 2011 the government reduced the minimum mandatory blend to 18 percent, leaving the mandatory blend range between E18 to E25.
All Brazilian automakers have adapted their gasoline engines to run smoothly with these range of mixtures, thus, all gasoline vehicles are built to run with blends from E20 to E25, defined by local law as "Common gasoline type C". Some vehicles might work properly with lower concentrations of ethanol, however, with a few exceptions, they are unable to run smoothly with pure gasoline which causes engine knocking
, as vehicles traveling to neighboring South America
n countries have demonstrated. Flexible-fuel vehicles, which can run on any mixed of gasoline
E20-E25 up to 100% hydrous ethanol
(E100 or hydrated ethanol) ratios, were first available in mid 2003. In July 2008, 86% of all new light vehicles sold in Brazil were flexible-fuel, and only two carmakers build models with a flex-fuel engine optimized to operate with pure gasoline (E0): Renault
with the models Clio
, Symbol
, Logan, Sandero and Mégane
, and Fiat
with the Siena Tetrafuel
.
Thailand
introduced E20 in 2008, however, shortages in ethanol supplies by mid-2008 caused a delay in the expansion of the E20 fueling station network in the country. By mid 2010 there were 161 fueling stations selling E20 and sales have risen 80% since April 2009. The rapid growth in E20 demand is due to the fact that most vehicle models launched since 2009 were E20-compatible, and sales of E20 are expected to grow faster once more local automakers start producing small E20-compatible fuel-efficient cars. The Thai government is promoting ethanol usage through subsidies, as ethanol costs four baht
a litre more than gasoline.
A state law approved in Minnesota
in 2005 mandates that ethanol comprise 20 percent of all gasoline sold in this American state beginning in 2013. Successful tests have been conducted to determined the performance under E20 by current vehicles and fuel dispensing equipment designed for E10.
for E85 flexible-fuel vehicle
s during the cold weather, but still sold at the pump labeled as E85
. The seasonal reduction of the ethanol content to a E85 winter blend is mandated to avoid cold starting problems at low temperatures.
In the US this seasonal reduction of the ethanol content to E70 applies only in cold regions, where temperatures fall below 32 °F (0 °C) during the winter. In Wyoming
for example, E70 is sold as E85 from October to May. In Sweden, all E85 flexible-fuel vehicle
s use a E75 winter blend. This blend was introduced since the winter 2006-07 and E75 is used from November until March.
For temperature below -15 C all E85 flex vehicles require an engine block heater to avoid cold starting problems. The use of this device is also recommended for gasoline vehicles when temperatures drop below -23 C. Another option when extreme cold weather is expected is to add more pure gasoline in the tank, thus reducing the ethanol content below the E70 winter blend, or simply not to use E85 during extreme low temperature spells.
and several Europe
an countries, particularly in Sweden
, as this blend is the standard fuel for flexible-fuel vehicle
s. This mixture has an octane rating
of about 105, which is significantly lower than pure ethanol but still higher than normal gasoline (87-95 octane, depending on country).
The 85% limit in the ethanol content was set to reduce ethanol emissions at low temperatures and to avoid cold starting problems during cold weather, at temperatures lower than 11 °C (51.8 °F). A further reduction in the ethanol content is used during the winter in regions where temperatures fall below 0 °C (32 °F) and this blend is called Winter E85, as the fuel is still sold under the E85 label. A winter blend of E70 is mandated in some regions in the US, while Sweden mandates E75.
As of October 2010 there were nearly 3,000 E85 fuel pumps in Europe, led by Sweden with 1,699 filling stations. The United States had 2,414 public E85 fuel pumps located in 1,701 cities by October 2010, mostly concentrated in the Midwest.
Thailand
introduced E85 fuel by the end of 2008, and by mid 2010 there were only four E85 filling stations, with plans to expand to 15 stations by 2012.
s where high compression is used to ignite the fuel, as opposed to the operation of gasoline engines where spark plug
s are used. This fuel was developed by Swedish ethanol producer SEKAB
. Because of the high ignition temperatures of pure ethanol, the addition of ignition improver is necessary for successful diesel engine
operation. The diesel engine that runs on ethanol has also a higher compression ratio and an adapted fuel system.
This fuel has been used with success in many Swedish Scania
buses since 1985, which has produced around 700 ethanol buses, more than 600 of them to Swedish
cities, and more recently has also delivered ethanol buses for commercial service in Great Britain
, Spain
, Italy
, Belgium
, and Norway
. As of June 2010 Stockholm
has the largest ethanol ED95 bus fleet in the world.
As of 2010 the Swedish ED95 engines are in its third generation and already have complied with Euro 5 emission standards, without any kind of post-treatment of the exhaust gases. The ethanol-powered engine is also being certified as Environmentally Enhanced Vehicle (EEV) in the Stockholm municipality. The EEV rule still has no date to enter into force in Europe and is stricter than the Euro 5 standard.
Nottingham
became the first city in England
to operate a regular bus service with ethanol-fueled vehicles. Three ED95 single-deck buses entered regular service in the city in March 2008. Soon after, Reading
also introduced ED95 double-deck buses.
Under the auspices of the BioEthanol for Sustainable Transport (BEST)
project, more than 138 bioethanol ED95 buses were part of demonstration trial at four cities, three in Europe, and one in Brazil, between 2006 and 2009. A total of 127 ED95 buses operated in Stockholm
, five buses operated in Madrid
, three in La Spezia
, and one in Brazil.
In Brazil, the first Scania ED95 bus with a modified diesel engine was introduced as a trial in São Paulo city on December 2007, and since November 2009 there were two ED95 buses in regular service. The Brazilian trial project run for three years and performance and emissions were monitored by the National Reference Center on Biomass (CENBIO- ) at the Universidade de São Paulo.
In November 2010 the municipal government of São Paulo
city signed an agreement with UNICA
, Cosan
, Scania
and Viação Metropolitana", a local bus operator, to introduced a fleet of 50 ethanol-powered ED95 buses by May 2011. Scania manufactures the bus engine and chassis in its plant located in São Bernardo do Campo
, São Paulo, using the same technology and fuel as the ED95 buses already operating in Stockholm
. The bus body is a Brazilian CAIO. The first ethanol-powered buses were delivered in May 2011, and the 50 buses will start regular service in June 2011 in the southern region of São Paulo. The 50 ED95 buses had a cost of R$
20 million and due to the higher cost of the ED95 fuel and the lower energy content of ethanol as compared to diesel, one of the firms participating in the cooperation agreement, Raísen (a joint venture
between Royal Dutch Shell
and Cosan
), supplies the fuel to the municipality at 70% of the market price of regular diesel.
E100 is pure ethanol fuel
. Straight hydrous ethanol as an automotive fuel has been widely used in Brazil
since the late seventies for neat ethanol vehicles and more recently for flexible-fuel vehicle
s. The ethanol fuel used in Brazil is distilled close to the azeotrope
mixture of 95.63% ethanol
and 4.37% water
(by weight)which is approximately 3.5% water by volume.
The azeotrope
is the highest concentration of ethanol that can be achieved via distillation
. The maximum water concentration according to the ANP specification is 4.9 vol.% (approximately 6.1 weight%) The E nomenclature is not adopted in Brazil, but hydrated ethanol can be tagged as E100 meaning that it does not have any gasoline, because the water content is not an additive but rather a residue from the distillation process. However, straight hydrous ethanol is also called E95 by some authors.
The first commercial vehicle capable of running on pure ethanol was the Ford Model T
, produced from 1908 through 1927. It was fitted with a carburetor
with adjustable jetting, allowing use of gasoline or ethanol, or a combination of both. At that time, other car manufactures also provided engines for ethanol fuel use. Thereafter, and as a response to the 1973
and 1979 energy crises
, the first modern vehicle capable of running with pure hydrous ethanol (E100) was launched in the Brazilian market, the Fiat 147
, after testing with several prototypes developed by the Brazilian subsidiaries of Fiat
, Volkswagen
, General Motors
and Ford
. Since 2003, Brazilian newer flexible-fuel vehicle
s are capable of running on pure hydrous ethanol (E100) or blended with any combination of E20 to E25 gasoline (a mixture made with anhydrous
ethanol), the national mandatory blend.
E100 imposes a limitation on normal vehicle operation as ethanol's lower evaporative pressure (as compared to gasoline) causes problems when cold starting the engine at temperatures below 15 °C (59 °F). For this reason both pure ethanol and E100 flexible-fuel vehicles are built with an additional small gasoline reservoir inside the engine compartment to help in starting the engine when cold by initially injecting gasoline. Once started, the engine is then switched back to ethanol. An improved flex engine generation was developed to eliminate the need for the secondary gas tank by warming the ethanol fuel during starting, and allowing flex vehicles to do a normal cold start at temperatures as low as -5 C, the lowest temperature expected anywhere in the Brazilian territory. The Polo E-Flex
, launched in March 2009, was the first flex fuel model without an auxiliary tank for cold start. The warming system is called Flex Start and was developed by Robert Bosch GmbH
.
Swedish carmakers have developed ethanol only capable engines for the new Saab Aero X BioPower 100 Concept E100, with a V6 engine which is fuelled entirely by E100 bioethanol, and the limited edition of the Koenigsegg CCXR
, a version of the CCX
converted to use E85 or E100, as well as standard 98 octane gasoline, and currently the fastest and most powerful flexible fuel vehicle with its twin-supercharged V8 producing 1018 hp when running on biofuel, as compared to 806 hp on 91 octane
unleaded gasoline.
The higher fuel efficiency of E100 in high performance race cars resulted in Indianapolis 500
races in 2007 and 2008 being run on 100 percent fuel grade ethanol.
as compared to a pure gasoline engine in order to take advantage of ethanol’s higher oxygen content, thus allowing an improvement in fuel efficiency and a reduction of tailpipe emissions. The following table shows the required modifications to gasoline engines to run smoothly and without degrading any materials. This information is based on the modifications made by the Brazilian automotive industry at the beginning of the ethanol program in that country in the late seventies, and reflects the experience of Volkswagen do Brasil
.
and major aviation engine manufacturers have prohibited the use of automotive gasolines blended with ethanol in light aircraft due to safety issues from fuel system and engine damage.
Internal combustion engine
The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber. In an internal combustion engine, the expansion of the high-temperature and high -pressure gases produced by combustion apply direct force to some component of the engine...
s (ICE) is only possible if the engine is designed or modified for that purpose. Anhydrous ethanol can be blended with gasoline
Gasoline
Gasoline , or petrol , is a toxic, translucent, petroleum-derived liquid that is primarily used as a fuel in internal combustion engines. It consists mostly of organic compounds obtained by the fractional distillation of petroleum, enhanced with a variety of additives. Some gasolines also contain...
(petrol) in various ratios for use in unmodified gasoline engines, and with minor modifications can also be used with a higher content of ethanol.
Ethanol fuel mixtures have "E" numbers which describe the percentage of ethanol fuel
Ethanol fuel
Ethanol fuel is ethanol , the same type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. It is most often used as a motor fuel, mainly as a biofuel additive for gasoline. World ethanol production for transport fuel tripled between 2000 and 2007 from 17 billion to more than 52 billion litres...
in the mixture by volume, for example, E85 is 85% anhydrous
Anhydrous
As a general term, a substance is said to be anhydrous if it contains no water. The way of achieving the anhydrous form differs from one substance to another...
ethanol and 15% gasoline. Low ethanol blends, from E5 to E25, are also known as gasohol, though internationally the most common use of the term gasohol refers to the E10 blend.
Blends of E10 or less are used in more than twenty countries around the world by 2011, led by the United States, where almost all retail gasoline sold in 2010 was blended with 10% of ethanol. Blends from E20 to E25 have been used in Brazil since the late 1970s. E85 is commonly used in the U.S. and Europe for flexible-fuel vehicle
Flexible-fuel vehicle
A flexible-fuel vehicle or dual-fuel vehicle is an alternative fuel vehicle with an internal combustion engine designed to run on more than one fuel, usually gasoline blended with either ethanol or methanol fuel, and both fuels are stored in the same common tank...
s. Hydrous ethanol or E100 is used in Brazilian neat ethanol vehicles and flex-fuel light vehicles and in hydrous E15 called hE15 for modern petrol cars in Netherlands.
E10 or less
E10, sometimes called gasohol, is a fuelFuel
Fuel is any material that stores energy that can later be extracted to perform mechanical work in a controlled manner. Most fuels used by humans undergo combustion, a redox reaction in which a combustible substance releases energy after it ignites and reacts with the oxygen in the air...
mixture of 10% anhydrous
Anhydrous
As a general term, a substance is said to be anhydrous if it contains no water. The way of achieving the anhydrous form differs from one substance to another...
ethanol and 90% gasoline that can be used in the internal combustion engine
Internal combustion engine
The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber. In an internal combustion engine, the expansion of the high-temperature and high -pressure gases produced by combustion apply direct force to some component of the engine...
s of most modern automobile
Automobile
An automobile, autocar, motor car or car is a wheeled motor vehicle used for transporting passengers, which also carries its own engine or motor...
s and light-duty vehicles without need for any modification on the engine or fuel system. E10 blends are typically rated as 2 to 3 octane higher than regular gasoline and are approved for use in all new US automobiles, and are mandated in some areas for emissions and other reasons. The E10 blend and lower ethanol content mixtures have been used in several countries, and its use has been primarily driven by the several world energy crises that have taken place since the 1973 oil crisis
1973 oil crisis
The 1973 oil crisis started in October 1973, when the members of Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries or the OAPEC proclaimed an oil embargo. This was "in response to the U.S. decision to re-supply the Israeli military" during the Yom Kippur war. It lasted until March 1974. With the...
.
Other common blends include E5 and E7. These concentrations are generally safe for recent engines that run on pure gasoline. As of 2006, mandates for blending bioethanol into vehicle fuels had been enacted in at least 36 states/provinces and 17 countries at the national level, with most mandates requiring a blend of 10 to 15% ethanol with gasoline.
One way to measure alternative fuels in the US is the "gasoline-equivalent gallons" (GEG). In 2002, the U.S. used as fuel an amount of ethanol equal to 137,000 terajoules
Joule
The joule ; symbol J) is a derived unit of energy or work in the International System of Units. It is equal to the energy expended in applying a force of one newton through a distance of one metre , or in passing an electric current of one ampere through a resistance of one ohm for one second...
(TJ), the energy equivalent of 1.13 billion gallons (4.3 billion liters) of gasoline. This was less than 1% of the total fuel used that year.
E10 and other blends of ethanol are considered to be useful in decreasing US dependence on foreign oil, and can reduce carbon monoxide
Carbon monoxide
Carbon monoxide , also called carbonous oxide, is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas that is slightly lighter than air. It is highly toxic to humans and animals in higher quantities, although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities, and is thought to have some normal...
(CO) emissions by 20 to 30% under the right conditions. Although E10 does decrease emissions of CO and greenhouse gases such as CO2 by an estimated 2% over regular gasoline, it can cause increases in evaporative emissions and some pollutants depending on factors like the age of the vehicle and weather conditions. According to the Philippine Department of Energy, the use of not more than a 10% ethanol-gasoline mixture is not harmful to cars' fuel systems. Generally, automobile gasoline containing alcohol (ethanol or methanol) is not allowed to be used in U.S. certificated aircraft.
Availability
- E10 was introduced nationwide in ThailandThailandThailand , officially the Kingdom of Thailand , formerly known as Siam , is a country located at the centre of the Indochina peninsula and Southeast Asia. It is bordered to the north by Burma and Laos, to the east by Laos and Cambodia, to the south by the Gulf of Thailand and Malaysia, and to the...
, and replaced high octane pure gasoline in that country in 2007.
- E10 is also commonly available in the Midwestern United StatesUnited StatesThe United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
. E10 has also been mandated for use in all standard automobile fuel in the state of FloridaFloridaFlorida is a state in the southeastern United States, located on the nation's Atlantic and Gulf coasts. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. With a population of 18,801,310 as measured by the 2010 census, it...
by the end of 2010. Due to the phasing out of MTBE as a gasoline additive and mainly due to the mandates established in the Energy Policy Act of 2005Energy Policy Act of 2005The Energy Policy Act of 2005 is a bill passed by the United States Congress on July 29, 2005, and signed into law by President George W. Bush on August 8, 2005, at Sandia National Laboratories in Albuquerque, New Mexico...
and the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 is an Act of Congress concerning the energy policy of the United States...
, ethanol blends have increased throughout the United StatesUnited StatesThe United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
, and by 2009, the ethanol market share in the U.S. gasoline supply reached almost 8% by volume. - The TescoTescoTesco plc is a global grocery and general merchandise retailer headquartered in Cheshunt, United Kingdom. It is the third-largest retailer in the world measured by revenues and the second-largest measured by profits...
chain of supermarkets in the UK have started selling an E5 brand of gasoline marketed as 99 RON super-unleaded. Its selling price is lower than the other two forms of high-octane unleaded on the market, Shell's V-Power (99 RON) and BP's Ultimate (97 RON). - Many petrol stations throughout AustraliaAustraliaAustralia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
now also sell E10, typically at a few cents cheaper per litre than regular unleaded. It is more commonly found throughout the state of Queensland due to its large sugarcane farming regions. The use of E10 is also subsidised by the Queensland government. Some ShellRoyal Dutch ShellRoyal Dutch Shell plc , commonly known as Shell, is a global oil and gas company headquartered in The Hague, Netherlands and with its registered office in London, United Kingdom. It is the fifth-largest company in the world according to a composite measure by Forbes magazine and one of the six...
service stations are also selling a 100 RON E5 blend called V-Power Racing (as opposed to the normal ethanol-free 98 RON V-Power). This is typically about 17 cents more expensive than regular unleaded. Many petrol stations no longer offer a "Regular 91" petrol option, instead only offering Regular E10 (91), Premium (95) and Premium (98). - In Sweden, all 95-octane gasoline is E5, while the status of 98-octane fuel is currently unclear. The product data sheets of the major fuel chains do not clearly state ethanol content of their 98-octane gasoline. In the early-mid 1990s, some fuel chains sold E10.
- From January 2011, all 95 octane fuel in Finland is E10, and 98E5 octane fuel is also available.
- Mandatory blending of ethanol was approved in MozambiqueMozambiqueMozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique , is a country in southeastern Africa bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east, Tanzania to the north, Malawi and Zambia to the northwest, Zimbabwe to the west and Swaziland and South Africa to the southwest...
, but the percentage in the blend has not been specified. - South AfricaSouth AfricaThe Republic of South Africa is a country in southern Africa. Located at the southern tip of Africa, it is divided into nine provinces, with of coastline on the Atlantic and Indian oceans...
approved a biofuel strategy in 2007, and mandated an 8% blend of ethanol by 2013. - A 2007 UruguayUruguayUruguay ,officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay,sometimes the Eastern Republic of Uruguay; ) is a country in the southeastern part of South America. It is home to some 3.5 million people, of whom 1.8 million live in the capital Montevideo and its metropolitan area...
an law mandates a minimum of 5% of ethanol blended with gasoline starting in January 2015. The monopolic, state-owned fuel producer ANCAPANCAP (Uruguay)ANCAP is a state-owned company in Uruguay. It is involved in the production of petroleum products, Portland cement and alcoholic beverages. It operates the Uruguay's single oil refinery at La Teja with capacity of per day...
started blending premium gasoline with 10% of bioethanol in December 2009, which will be available in all the country by early January 2010. The other two gasolines will follow later in 2010. - Dominican RepublicDominican RepublicThe Dominican Republic is a nation on the island of La Hispaniola, part of the Greater Antilles archipelago in the Caribbean region. The western third of the island is occupied by the nation of Haiti, making Hispaniola one of two Caribbean islands that are shared by two countries...
has a mandate for blending 15% of ethanol by 2015. - ChileChileChile ,officially the Republic of Chile , is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow coastal strip between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far...
is considering the introduction of E5, and BoliviaBoliviaBolivia officially known as Plurinational State of Bolivia , is a landlocked country in central South America. It is the poorest country in South America...
and VenezuelaVenezuelaVenezuela , officially called the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela , is a tropical country on the northern coast of South America. It borders Colombia to the west, Guyana to the east, and Brazil to the south...
of E10.
| Low ethanol blends used around the world (E5 to E25) | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Country | Ethanol blend |
Legal use | Country | Ethanol blend |
Legal use | Country | Ethanol blend |
Legal use | State | Ethanol blend |
State | Ethanol blend |
| Countries with mandatory blends or available for optional use | (states where mandatory only) |
|||||||||||
| Mandated |  Malawi |
Mandated | |
Optional | Florida Florida Florida is a state in the southeastern United States, located on the nation's Atlantic and Gulf coasts. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. With a population of 18,801,310 as measured by the 2010 census, it... |
Minnesota Minnesota Minnesota is a U.S. state located in the Midwestern United States. The twelfth largest state of the U.S., it is the twenty-first most populous, with 5.3 million residents. Minnesota was carved out of the eastern half of the Minnesota Territory and admitted to the Union as the thirty-second state... |
||||||
| |
Optional |  Mexico |
Mandated | |
Optional | Hawaii Hawaii Hawaii is the newest of the 50 U.S. states , and is the only U.S. state made up entirely of islands. It is the northernmost island group in Polynesia, occupying most of an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean, southwest of the continental United States, southeast of Japan, and northeast of... |
Missouri Missouri Missouri is a US state located in the Midwestern United States, bordered by Iowa, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Kansas and Nebraska. With a 2010 population of 5,988,927, Missouri is the 18th most populous state in the nation and the fifth most populous in the Midwest. It... |
|||||
| |
Mandated | Optional | |
Mandated | Iowa Iowa Iowa is a state located in the Midwestern United States, an area often referred to as the "American Heartland". It derives its name from the Ioway people, one of the many American Indian tribes that occupied the state at the time of European exploration. Iowa was a part of the French colony of New... |
Montana Montana Montana is a state in the Western United States. The western third of Montana contains numerous mountain ranges. Smaller, "island ranges" are found in the central third of the state, for a total of 77 named ranges of the Rocky Mountains. This geographical fact is reflected in the state's name,... |
||||||
| |
Mandated | Optional | |
Kansas Kansas Kansas is a US state located in the Midwestern United States. It is named after the Kansas River which flows through it, which in turn was named after the Kansa Native American tribe, which inhabited the area. The tribe's name is often said to mean "people of the wind" or "people of the south... |
Oregon Oregon Oregon is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. It is located on the Pacific coast, with Washington to the north, California to the south, Nevada on the southeast and Idaho to the east. The Columbia and Snake rivers delineate much of Oregon's northern and eastern... |
|||||||
| |
Nine provinces | Mandated | |
Optional | Louisiana Louisiana Louisiana is a state located in the southern region of the United States of America. Its capital is Baton Rouge and largest city is New Orleans. Louisiana is the only state in the U.S. with political subdivisions termed parishes, which are local governments equivalent to counties... |
Washington | ||||||
| |
Mandated | |
Mandated | |
Mandated | |||||||
| |
Mandated | |
Mandated | |
Optional | |||||||
| |
Mandated | E10/E20 | Mandated | |
Mandated | |||||||
| |
MandatedSince November 1, 2008 became available in some cities and will become mandatory in May 2009. | |
Mandated | |||||||||
A 2011 study conducted by VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland
VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland
VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland is largest multidisciplinary research organisation in Northern Europe. It provides high-end technology solutions and innovation services...
found there is practically no difference in fuel consumption in normal driving conditions between commercial gasoline grades 95E10 and 98E5 sold in Finland, despite the public perception that fuel consumption is significantly higher with 95E10. VTT performed the comparison test under controlled laboratory conditions and their measurements show that the cars tested used an average of 10.3 liters of 95E10 per 100 km (62.1 mi), as opposed to 10.23 liters of 98E5 per 100 km (62.1 mi). The difference was 0.07 in favor of 98E5 on average, meaning that using 95E10 gasoline, which has a higher ethanol content, increases consumption by 0.7%. When the measurements are normalized, the difference becomes 1.0%, a result that is highly consistent with an estimation of calorific values based on approximate fuel composition, which came out at 1.1% in favour of E5.
E15
E15 contains 15% ethanol and 85% gasoline. This is generally the highest ratio of ethanol to gasoline that is possible to use in vehicles recommended by auto manufacturers to run on E10 in the U.S.As a result of the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007
Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007
The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 is an Act of Congress concerning the energy policy of the United States...
, which mandates an increase in renewable fuels for the transport sector, the U.S. Department of Energy began assessments for the feasibility of using intermediate ethanol blends in the existing vehicle fleet as a way to allow higher consumption of ethanol fuel. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory
National Renewable Energy Laboratory
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory , located in Golden, Colorado, is the United States' primary laboratory for renewable energy and energy efficiency research and development. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory is a government-owned, contractor-operated facility; it is funded through...
(NREL) conducted tests to evaluate the potential impacts of intermediate ethanol blends on legacy vehicles and other engines. In a preliminary report released in October 2008, the NREL presented the results of the first evaluations of the effects of E10, E15 and E20 gasoline blends on tailpipe and evaporative emissions, catalyst and engine durability, vehicle driveability, engine operability, and vehicle and engine materials. This preliminary report found that none of the vehicles displayed a malfunction indicator light as a result of the ethanol blend used; no fuel filter plugging symptoms were observed; no cold start problems were observed at 24 °C (75.2 °F) and 10 °C (50 °F) laboratory conditions; and as expected, all test vehicles exhibited a loss in fuel economy proportional with the lower energy density of ethanol, for example, with E20, the average reduction in fuel economy was 7.7% when compared to the miles per gallon achieved by the gasoline only (E0) test vehicles.
In March 2009 a lobbying group from the ethanol industry, Growth Energy, formally requested the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to allow the ethanol content in gasoline to be increased to 15 percent from 10 percent. Organizations doing such studies included the Energy Department, the State of Minnesota, the Renewable Fuels Association
Renewable Fuels Association
The Renewable Fuels Association is an American lobbying organization which promotes policies, regulations, and research and development initiatives that will lead to the increased production and use of ethanol fuel...
, the Rochester Institute of Technology
Rochester Institute of Technology
The Rochester Institute of Technology is a private university, located within the town of Henrietta in metropolitan Rochester, New York, United States...
, the Minnesota Center for Automotive Research, and Stockholm University
Stockholm University
Stockholm University is a state university in Stockholm, Sweden. It has over 28,000 students at four faculties, making it one of the largest universities in Scandinavia. The institution is also frequently regarded as one of the top 100 universities in the world...
in Sweden.
In October 2010 the EPA granted a waiver to allow up to 15% of ethanol blended with gasoline to be sold only for cars and light pickup trucks with a model year of 2007 or later, representing about 15% of vehicles on the U.S. roads. In January 2011 the waiver was expanded to authorize use of E15 to include model year 2001 through 2006 passenger vehicles. The EPA also decided not to grant any waiver for E15 use in any motorcycles, heavy-duty vehicles, or non-road engines because current testing data does not support such a waiver. According to the Renewable Fuels Association the E15 waivers now cover 62% of vehicles on the road in the US, and the ethanol group estimates that if all 2001 and newer cars and pickups were to use E15, the theoretical blend wall for ethanol use would be approximately 17.5 billion gallons (66.2 billion liters) per year. EPA is still studying if older cars can withstand a 15 percent ethanol blend.
As EPA waiver authorize but does not require stations to offer E15, a practical barrier to the commercialization of the higher blend is the lack of infrastructure, similar to the limitations suffered by sales of E85
E85
E85 is an abbreviation for an ethanol fuel blend of up to 85% denatured ethanol fuel and gasoline or other hydrocarbon by volume. E85 is commonly used by flex-fuel vehicles in the US, Canada, and Europe. Some of the benefits of E85 over conventional gasoline powered vehicles include the potential...
, as most fuel stations do not have enough pumps to offer the new blend, few existing pumps are certified to dispense E15, and there are no dedicated tanks readily available to store E15. Also some state and federal regulations would have to change before E15 can be legally sold. The National Association of Convenience Stores, which represents most gasoline retailers, considers that the potential for actual E15 demand is small “because the auto industry is not embracing the fuel and is not adjusting their warranties or recommendations for the fuel type." One possible solution to the infrastructure barriers is the introduction of blender pumps that allow consumers to turn a dial to select the level of ethanol, which would also allow owners of flexible-fuel cars to buy E85 fuel.
In June 2011 EPA, in cooperation with the Federal Trade Commission
Federal Trade Commission
The Federal Trade Commission is an independent agency of the United States government, established in 1914 by the Federal Trade Commission Act...
, issued its final ruling regarding the E15 warning label that is required to be displayed in all E15 fuel dispensers in the U.S. to inform consumers about what vehicles can, and what vehicles and equipment cannot, use the E15 blend. Both the Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers
Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers
The Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers is a trade group of automobile manufacturers that operate in the United States. Their mission is to "represent the common interests of its members and provide a forum to enable them to advance public policies that meet consumer and societal needs for clean,...
and the National Petrochemical and Refiners Association
National Petrochemical and Refiners Association
The National Petrochemical and Refiners Association includes refiners and petrochemical producers and conducts its main meetings every year in San Antonio, Texas...
complained that relying solely on this warning label is not enough to protect consumers from misfueling.
hE15
hE15 contains 15% hydrous ethanol and 85% gasoline and has been introduced at public gas stations in Netherlands since 2008. Ethanol fuel specifications worldwide traditionally dictate use of anhydrous ethanol (less than 1% water) for gasoline blending. This results in additional costs, energy usage and environmental impacts associated with the extra processing step required to dehydrate the hydrous ethanol produced via distillation (3.5-4.9 vol.% water) to meet the current anhydrous ethanol specifications. A patented discovery reveals that hydrous ethanol can be effectively used in most ethanol/gasoline blending applications.According to the Brazilian ANP specification hydrous ethanol contains up to 4.9 vol.% water. In hE15 this would be up to 0.74 vol.% water in the overall mixture. “Water injection” has additional positive effects on the engine performance (thermodynamic efficiency) and also reduces emissions.
Overall, a transition from anhydrous to hydrous ethanol for gasoline blending is expected to make a significant contribution to ethanol’s cost-competitiveness, fuel cycle net energy balance, air quality and greenhouse gas emissions.
The level of blending above 10 % (V/V) is chosen both from a technical (safety) perspective and to distinguish the product in Europe from regular unleaded petrol for reasons of taxes and customer clarity. Small scale tests have shown that many vehicles with modern engine types can run smoothly on this hydrous ethanol blend. Mixed tanking scenarios with anhydrous ethanol blends at 5% or 10% level do not induce phase separation.
As avoiding mixing with E0, in particular at extremely low temperatures, in logistic systems and engines is not recommended, a separate specification for controlled usage is presented in a Netherlands Technical Agreement NTA 8115 (not published yet). The NTA 8115 is written for a worldwide application in trading and fuel blending.
E20, E25
| Historical evolution of ethanol blends used in Brazil 1931-2010 (Selected years only) |
|||
|---|---|---|---|
| Year | Ethanol blend |
Year | Ethanol blend |
| 1931 | E5 | 2003 | E20-25 |
| 1966 | E25 | 2004 | E20 |
| 1976 | E11 | 2005 | E22 |
| 1978 | E18-20-23 | 2006 | E20 |
| 1981 | E20-12-20 | 2007 | E23-25 |
| 1987-88 | E22 | 2008 | E25 |
| 1993-98 | E22 | 2009 | E25 |
| 2000 | E20 | 2010 | E20-25 |
| 2001 | E22 | 2011 | E18-E25 |
| Source: 1937-2007, J.A. Puerto Rico (2007), Table 3.8, pp. 81–82 Note: The 2010 reduction from E25 to E20 was temporary and took place between February and April. The lower limit was reduced from 20% to 18% in April 2011. |
|||
E20 contains 20% ethanol and 80% gasoline, while E25 contains 25% ethanol. These blends have been widely used in Brazil
Brazil
Brazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people...
since the late seventies. As a response to the 1973 oil crisis
1973 oil crisis
The 1973 oil crisis started in October 1973, when the members of Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries or the OAPEC proclaimed an oil embargo. This was "in response to the U.S. decision to re-supply the Israeli military" during the Yom Kippur war. It lasted until March 1974. With the...
, the Brazilian government made mandatory the blend of ethanol fuel
Ethanol fuel
Ethanol fuel is ethanol , the same type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. It is most often used as a motor fuel, mainly as a biofuel additive for gasoline. World ethanol production for transport fuel tripled between 2000 and 2007 from 17 billion to more than 52 billion litres...
with gasoline, fluctuating between 10% to 22% from 1976 until 1992. Due to this mandatory minimum gasoline blend, pure gasoline (E0) is no longer sold in Brazil. A federal law was passed in October 1993 establishing a mandatory blend of 22% anhydrous
Anhydrous
As a general term, a substance is said to be anhydrous if it contains no water. The way of achieving the anhydrous form differs from one substance to another...
ethanol (E22) in the entire country. This law also authorized the Executive to set different percentages of ethanol within pre-established boundaries, and since 2003 these limits were fixed at a maximum of 25% (E25) and a minimum of 20% (E20) by volume. Since then, the government has set the percentage on the ethanol blend according to the results of the sugarcane
Sugarcane
Sugarcane refers to any of six to 37 species of tall perennial grasses of the genus Saccharum . Native to the warm temperate to tropical regions of South Asia, they have stout, jointed, fibrous stalks that are rich in sugar, and measure two to six metres tall...
harvest and ethanol production from sugarcane, resulting in blend variations even within the same year.
Since July 1, 2007 the mandatory blend was set at 25% of anhydrous
Anhydrous
As a general term, a substance is said to be anhydrous if it contains no water. The way of achieving the anhydrous form differs from one substance to another...
ethanol (E25) by Executive Decree, and this has been the standard gasoline blend sold throughout Brazil
Brazil
Brazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people...
most of the time as of 2011. However, as a result of a supply shortage and the resulting high ethanol fuel prices, in 2010 the government mandated a temporary 90-day blend reduction from E25 to E20 beginning February 1, 2010. As prices rose abruptly again due to supply shortages that took place again between the 2010-2011 harvest seasons, some ethanol had to be imported from the United States, and in April 2011 the government reduced the minimum mandatory blend to 18 percent, leaving the mandatory blend range between E18 to E25.
All Brazilian automakers have adapted their gasoline engines to run smoothly with these range of mixtures, thus, all gasoline vehicles are built to run with blends from E20 to E25, defined by local law as "Common gasoline type C". Some vehicles might work properly with lower concentrations of ethanol, however, with a few exceptions, they are unable to run smoothly with pure gasoline which causes engine knocking
Engine knocking
Knocking in spark-ignition internal combustion engines occurs when combustion of the air/fuel mixture in the cylinder starts off correctly in response to ignition by the spark plug, but one or more pockets of air/fuel mixture explode outside the envelope of the normal combustion front.The...
, as vehicles traveling to neighboring South America
South America
South America is a continent situated in the Western Hemisphere, mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere. The continent is also considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east...
n countries have demonstrated. Flexible-fuel vehicles, which can run on any mixed of gasoline
Gasoline
Gasoline , or petrol , is a toxic, translucent, petroleum-derived liquid that is primarily used as a fuel in internal combustion engines. It consists mostly of organic compounds obtained by the fractional distillation of petroleum, enhanced with a variety of additives. Some gasolines also contain...
E20-E25 up to 100% hydrous ethanol
Ethanol fuel
Ethanol fuel is ethanol , the same type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. It is most often used as a motor fuel, mainly as a biofuel additive for gasoline. World ethanol production for transport fuel tripled between 2000 and 2007 from 17 billion to more than 52 billion litres...
(E100 or hydrated ethanol) ratios, were first available in mid 2003. In July 2008, 86% of all new light vehicles sold in Brazil were flexible-fuel, and only two carmakers build models with a flex-fuel engine optimized to operate with pure gasoline (E0): Renault
Renault
Renault S.A. is a French automaker producing cars, vans, and in the past, autorail vehicles, trucks, tractors, vans and also buses/coaches. Its alliance with Nissan makes it the world's third largest automaker...
with the models Clio
Renault Clio
The Renault Clio is a supermini car produced by the French automobile manufacturer Renault. Originally launched in 1990, it is currently in its third generation...
, Symbol
Renault Symbol
The Renault Symbol, or Thalia in some markets, is a sedan car produced by the French automobile manufacturer Renault. The first generation was introduced as the saloon version of the second generation Renault Clio, but was marketed only in those countries where the hatchback didn't sell too well,...
, Logan, Sandero and Mégane
Renault Mégane
The Renault Mégane is a small family car produced by the French automaker Renault since 1995. It is offered in 3- and 5-door hatchback, saloon, coupé, convertible and estate bodystyles...
, and Fiat
Fiat
FIAT, an acronym for Fabbrica Italiana Automobili Torino , is an Italian automobile manufacturer, engine manufacturer, financial, and industrial group based in Turin in the Italian region of Piedmont. Fiat was founded in 1899 by a group of investors including Giovanni Agnelli...
with the Siena Tetrafuel
Fiat Siena
The Fiat Siena is the four-door sedan version of the Fiat Palio, a supermini car especially designed for developing countries. The car is similar to Fiat Albea...
.
Thailand
Thailand
Thailand , officially the Kingdom of Thailand , formerly known as Siam , is a country located at the centre of the Indochina peninsula and Southeast Asia. It is bordered to the north by Burma and Laos, to the east by Laos and Cambodia, to the south by the Gulf of Thailand and Malaysia, and to the...
introduced E20 in 2008, however, shortages in ethanol supplies by mid-2008 caused a delay in the expansion of the E20 fueling station network in the country. By mid 2010 there were 161 fueling stations selling E20 and sales have risen 80% since April 2009. The rapid growth in E20 demand is due to the fact that most vehicle models launched since 2009 were E20-compatible, and sales of E20 are expected to grow faster once more local automakers start producing small E20-compatible fuel-efficient cars. The Thai government is promoting ethanol usage through subsidies, as ethanol costs four baht
Thai baht
The baht is the currency of Thailand. It is subdivided into 100 satang . The issuance of currency is the responsibility of the Bank of Thailand.-History:The baht, like the pound, originated from a traditional unit of mass...
a litre more than gasoline.
A state law approved in Minnesota
Minnesota
Minnesota is a U.S. state located in the Midwestern United States. The twelfth largest state of the U.S., it is the twenty-first most populous, with 5.3 million residents. Minnesota was carved out of the eastern half of the Minnesota Territory and admitted to the Union as the thirty-second state...
in 2005 mandates that ethanol comprise 20 percent of all gasoline sold in this American state beginning in 2013. Successful tests have been conducted to determined the performance under E20 by current vehicles and fuel dispensing equipment designed for E10.
E70, E75
E70 contains 70% ethanol and 30% gasoline, while E75 contains 75% ethanol. These are the winter blends used in the United States and SwedenSweden
Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund....
for E85 flexible-fuel vehicle
Flexible-fuel vehicle
A flexible-fuel vehicle or dual-fuel vehicle is an alternative fuel vehicle with an internal combustion engine designed to run on more than one fuel, usually gasoline blended with either ethanol or methanol fuel, and both fuels are stored in the same common tank...
s during the cold weather, but still sold at the pump labeled as E85
E85
E85 is an abbreviation for an ethanol fuel blend of up to 85% denatured ethanol fuel and gasoline or other hydrocarbon by volume. E85 is commonly used by flex-fuel vehicles in the US, Canada, and Europe. Some of the benefits of E85 over conventional gasoline powered vehicles include the potential...
. The seasonal reduction of the ethanol content to a E85 winter blend is mandated to avoid cold starting problems at low temperatures.
In the US this seasonal reduction of the ethanol content to E70 applies only in cold regions, where temperatures fall below 32 °F (0 °C) during the winter. In Wyoming
Wyoming
Wyoming is a state in the mountain region of the Western United States. The western two thirds of the state is covered mostly with the mountain ranges and rangelands in the foothills of the Eastern Rocky Mountains, while the eastern third of the state is high elevation prairie known as the High...
for example, E70 is sold as E85 from October to May. In Sweden, all E85 flexible-fuel vehicle
Flexible-fuel vehicle
A flexible-fuel vehicle or dual-fuel vehicle is an alternative fuel vehicle with an internal combustion engine designed to run on more than one fuel, usually gasoline blended with either ethanol or methanol fuel, and both fuels are stored in the same common tank...
s use a E75 winter blend. This blend was introduced since the winter 2006-07 and E75 is used from November until March.
For temperature below -15 C all E85 flex vehicles require an engine block heater to avoid cold starting problems. The use of this device is also recommended for gasoline vehicles when temperatures drop below -23 C. Another option when extreme cold weather is expected is to add more pure gasoline in the tank, thus reducing the ethanol content below the E70 winter blend, or simply not to use E85 during extreme low temperature spells.
E85
E85 is a mixture of 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline, and is generally the highest ethanol fuel mixture found in the United StatesUnited States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
and several Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
an countries, particularly in Sweden
Sweden
Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund....
, as this blend is the standard fuel for flexible-fuel vehicle
Flexible-fuel vehicle
A flexible-fuel vehicle or dual-fuel vehicle is an alternative fuel vehicle with an internal combustion engine designed to run on more than one fuel, usually gasoline blended with either ethanol or methanol fuel, and both fuels are stored in the same common tank...
s. This mixture has an octane rating
Octane rating
Octane rating or octane number is a standard measure of the anti-knock properties of a motor or aviation fuel. The higher the octane number, the more compression the fuel can withstand before detonating...
of about 105, which is significantly lower than pure ethanol but still higher than normal gasoline (87-95 octane, depending on country).
As of October 2010 there were nearly 3,000 E85 fuel pumps in Europe, led by Sweden with 1,699 filling stations. The United States had 2,414 public E85 fuel pumps located in 1,701 cities by October 2010, mostly concentrated in the Midwest.
Thailand
Thailand
Thailand , officially the Kingdom of Thailand , formerly known as Siam , is a country located at the centre of the Indochina peninsula and Southeast Asia. It is bordered to the north by Burma and Laos, to the east by Laos and Cambodia, to the south by the Gulf of Thailand and Malaysia, and to the...
introduced E85 fuel by the end of 2008, and by mid 2010 there were only four E85 filling stations, with plans to expand to 15 stations by 2012.
ED95
ED95 designates a blend of 95% ethanol and 5% ignition improver and is used in modified diesel engineDiesel engine
A diesel engine is an internal combustion engine that uses the heat of compression to initiate ignition to burn the fuel, which is injected into the combustion chamber...
s where high compression is used to ignite the fuel, as opposed to the operation of gasoline engines where spark plug
Spark plug
A spark plug is an electrical device that fits into the cylinder head of some internal combustion engines and ignites compressed fuels such as aerosol, gasoline, ethanol, and liquefied petroleum gas by means of an electric spark.Spark plugs have an insulated central electrode which is connected by...
s are used. This fuel was developed by Swedish ethanol producer SEKAB
Svensk Etanolkemi
The company Svensk Etanolkemi AB, or Sekab is a major Nordic producer of ethanol, ethanol derivatives such as acetic acid and ethyl acetate, and ethanol fuels such as E85. They are located in Örnsköldsvik in middle Sweden, and are owned by NEAB, a regional private consortium....
. Because of the high ignition temperatures of pure ethanol, the addition of ignition improver is necessary for successful diesel engine
Diesel engine
A diesel engine is an internal combustion engine that uses the heat of compression to initiate ignition to burn the fuel, which is injected into the combustion chamber...
operation. The diesel engine that runs on ethanol has also a higher compression ratio and an adapted fuel system.
This fuel has been used with success in many Swedish Scania
Scania
Scania is the southernmost of the 25 traditional non-administrative provinces of Sweden, constituting a peninsula on the southern tip of the Scandinavian peninsula, and some adjacent islands. The modern administrative subdivision Skåne County is almost, but not totally, congruent with the...
buses since 1985, which has produced around 700 ethanol buses, more than 600 of them to Swedish
Sweden
Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund....
cities, and more recently has also delivered ethanol buses for commercial service in Great Britain
Great Britain
Great Britain or Britain is an island situated to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, and the largest European island, as well as the largest of the British Isles...
, Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
, Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
, Belgium
Belgium
Belgium , officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a federal state in Western Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts the EU's headquarters, and those of several other major international organisations such as NATO.Belgium is also a member of, or affiliated to, many...
, and Norway
Norway
Norway , officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic unitary constitutional monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Jan Mayen, and the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard and Bouvet Island. Norway has a total area of and a population of about 4.9 million...
. As of June 2010 Stockholm
Stockholm
Stockholm is the capital and the largest city of Sweden and constitutes the most populated urban area in Scandinavia. Stockholm is the most populous city in Sweden, with a population of 851,155 in the municipality , 1.37 million in the urban area , and around 2.1 million in the metropolitan area...
has the largest ethanol ED95 bus fleet in the world.
As of 2010 the Swedish ED95 engines are in its third generation and already have complied with Euro 5 emission standards, without any kind of post-treatment of the exhaust gases. The ethanol-powered engine is also being certified as Environmentally Enhanced Vehicle (EEV) in the Stockholm municipality. The EEV rule still has no date to enter into force in Europe and is stricter than the Euro 5 standard.
Nottingham
Nottingham
Nottingham is a city and unitary authority in the East Midlands of England. It is located in the ceremonial county of Nottinghamshire and represents one of eight members of the English Core Cities Group...
became the first city in England
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
to operate a regular bus service with ethanol-fueled vehicles. Three ED95 single-deck buses entered regular service in the city in March 2008. Soon after, Reading
Reading, Berkshire
Reading is a large town and unitary authority area in England. It is located in the Thames Valley at the confluence of the River Thames and River Kennet, and on both the Great Western Main Line railway and the M4 motorway, some west of London....
also introduced ED95 double-deck buses.
Under the auspices of the BioEthanol for Sustainable Transport (BEST)
BioEthanol for Sustainable Transport
BioEthanol for Sustainable Transport was a four-year project financially supported by the European Union for promoting the introduction and market penetration of bioethanol as a vehicle fuel, and the introduction and wider use of flexible-fuel vehicles and ethanol-powered vehicles on the world...
project, more than 138 bioethanol ED95 buses were part of demonstration trial at four cities, three in Europe, and one in Brazil, between 2006 and 2009. A total of 127 ED95 buses operated in Stockholm
Stockholm
Stockholm is the capital and the largest city of Sweden and constitutes the most populated urban area in Scandinavia. Stockholm is the most populous city in Sweden, with a population of 851,155 in the municipality , 1.37 million in the urban area , and around 2.1 million in the metropolitan area...
, five buses operated in Madrid
Madrid
Madrid is the capital and largest city of Spain. The population of the city is roughly 3.3 million and the entire population of the Madrid metropolitan area is calculated to be 6.271 million. It is the third largest city in the European Union, after London and Berlin, and its metropolitan...
, three in La Spezia
La Spezia
La Spezia , at the head of the Gulf of La Spezia in the Liguria region of northern Italy, is the capital city of the province of La Spezia. Located between Genoa and Pisa on the Ligurian Sea, it is one of the main Italian military and commercial harbours and hosts one of Italy's biggest military...
, and one in Brazil.
In Brazil, the first Scania ED95 bus with a modified diesel engine was introduced as a trial in São Paulo city on December 2007, and since November 2009 there were two ED95 buses in regular service. The Brazilian trial project run for three years and performance and emissions were monitored by the National Reference Center on Biomass (CENBIO- ) at the Universidade de São Paulo.
In November 2010 the municipal government of São Paulo
São Paulo
São Paulo is the largest city in Brazil, the largest city in the southern hemisphere and South America, and the world's seventh largest city by population. The metropolis is anchor to the São Paulo metropolitan area, ranked as the second-most populous metropolitan area in the Americas and among...
city signed an agreement with UNICA
UNICA, Brazil
UNICA , the Brazilian Sugarcane Industry Association, is a lobbying organization of producers of sugarcane and ethanol fuel. UNICA members are responsible for more than 50% of all ethanol produced in Brazil and 60% of overall sugar production....
, Cosan
Cosan
Cosan is a public company, a Brazilian conglomerate producer of bioethanol, sugar and energy.-Biography:Cosan began in 1936 in Piracicaba city in State of São Paulo, with the founding of its first factory for milling of sugar cane...
, Scania
Scania
Scania is the southernmost of the 25 traditional non-administrative provinces of Sweden, constituting a peninsula on the southern tip of the Scandinavian peninsula, and some adjacent islands. The modern administrative subdivision Skåne County is almost, but not totally, congruent with the...
and Viação Metropolitana", a local bus operator, to introduced a fleet of 50 ethanol-powered ED95 buses by May 2011. Scania manufactures the bus engine and chassis in its plant located in São Bernardo do Campo
São Bernardo do Campo
São Bernardo do Campo is a municipality in the state of São Paulo, in southern Metropolitan São Paulo and São Paulo microregion. The municipality's total area is 408.45 km ² and a population estimated at 1 July 2009, according to the IBGE, was 810,979 inhabitants, which results in a population...
, São Paulo, using the same technology and fuel as the ED95 buses already operating in Stockholm
Stockholm
Stockholm is the capital and the largest city of Sweden and constitutes the most populated urban area in Scandinavia. Stockholm is the most populous city in Sweden, with a population of 851,155 in the municipality , 1.37 million in the urban area , and around 2.1 million in the metropolitan area...
. The bus body is a Brazilian CAIO. The first ethanol-powered buses were delivered in May 2011, and the 50 buses will start regular service in June 2011 in the southern region of São Paulo. The 50 ED95 buses had a cost of R$
Brazilian real
The real is the present-day currency of Brazil. Its sign is R$ and its ISO code is BRL. It is subdivided into 100 centavos ....
20 million and due to the higher cost of the ED95 fuel and the lower energy content of ethanol as compared to diesel, one of the firms participating in the cooperation agreement, Raísen (a joint venture
Joint venture
A joint venture is a business agreement in which parties agree to develop, for a finite time, a new entity and new assets by contributing equity. They exercise control over the enterprise and consequently share revenues, expenses and assets...
between Royal Dutch Shell
Royal Dutch Shell
Royal Dutch Shell plc , commonly known as Shell, is a global oil and gas company headquartered in The Hague, Netherlands and with its registered office in London, United Kingdom. It is the fifth-largest company in the world according to a composite measure by Forbes magazine and one of the six...
and Cosan
Cosan
Cosan is a public company, a Brazilian conglomerate producer of bioethanol, sugar and energy.-Biography:Cosan began in 1936 in Piracicaba city in State of São Paulo, with the founding of its first factory for milling of sugar cane...
), supplies the fuel to the municipality at 70% of the market price of regular diesel.
E100
Ethanol fuel
Ethanol fuel is ethanol , the same type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. It is most often used as a motor fuel, mainly as a biofuel additive for gasoline. World ethanol production for transport fuel tripled between 2000 and 2007 from 17 billion to more than 52 billion litres...
. Straight hydrous ethanol as an automotive fuel has been widely used in Brazil
Brazil
Brazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people...
since the late seventies for neat ethanol vehicles and more recently for flexible-fuel vehicle
Flexible-fuel vehicle
A flexible-fuel vehicle or dual-fuel vehicle is an alternative fuel vehicle with an internal combustion engine designed to run on more than one fuel, usually gasoline blended with either ethanol or methanol fuel, and both fuels are stored in the same common tank...
s. The ethanol fuel used in Brazil is distilled close to the azeotrope
Azeotrope
An azeotrope is a mixture of two or more liquids in such a ratio that its composition cannot be changed by simple distillation. This occurs because, when an azeotrope is boiled, the resulting vapor has the same ratio of constituents as the original mixture....
mixture of 95.63% ethanol
Ethanol
Ethanol, also called ethyl alcohol, pure alcohol, grain alcohol, or drinking alcohol, is a volatile, flammable, colorless liquid. It is a psychoactive drug and one of the oldest recreational drugs. Best known as the type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages, it is also used in thermometers, as a...
and 4.37% water
Water
Water is a chemical substance with the chemical formula H2O. A water molecule contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms connected by covalent bonds. Water is a liquid at ambient conditions, but it often co-exists on Earth with its solid state, ice, and gaseous state . Water also exists in a...
(by weight)which is approximately 3.5% water by volume.
The azeotrope
Azeotrope
An azeotrope is a mixture of two or more liquids in such a ratio that its composition cannot be changed by simple distillation. This occurs because, when an azeotrope is boiled, the resulting vapor has the same ratio of constituents as the original mixture....
is the highest concentration of ethanol that can be achieved via distillation
Distillation
Distillation is a method of separating mixtures based on differences in volatilities of components in a boiling liquid mixture. Distillation is a unit operation, or a physical separation process, and not a chemical reaction....
. The maximum water concentration according to the ANP specification is 4.9 vol.% (approximately 6.1 weight%) The E nomenclature is not adopted in Brazil, but hydrated ethanol can be tagged as E100 meaning that it does not have any gasoline, because the water content is not an additive but rather a residue from the distillation process. However, straight hydrous ethanol is also called E95 by some authors.
The first commercial vehicle capable of running on pure ethanol was the Ford Model T
Ford Model T
The Ford Model T is an automobile that was produced by Henry Ford's Ford Motor Company from September 1908 to May 1927...
, produced from 1908 through 1927. It was fitted with a carburetor
Carburetor
A carburetor , carburettor, or carburetter is a device that blends air and fuel for an internal combustion engine. It is sometimes shortened to carb in North America and the United Kingdom....
with adjustable jetting, allowing use of gasoline or ethanol, or a combination of both. At that time, other car manufactures also provided engines for ethanol fuel use. Thereafter, and as a response to the 1973
1973 oil crisis
The 1973 oil crisis started in October 1973, when the members of Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries or the OAPEC proclaimed an oil embargo. This was "in response to the U.S. decision to re-supply the Israeli military" during the Yom Kippur war. It lasted until March 1974. With the...
and 1979 energy crises
1979 energy crisis
The 1979 oil crisis in the United States occurred in the wake of the Iranian Revolution. Amid massive protests, the Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, fled his country in early 1979 and the Ayatollah Khomeini soon became the new leader of Iran. Protests severely disrupted the Iranian oil...
, the first modern vehicle capable of running with pure hydrous ethanol (E100) was launched in the Brazilian market, the Fiat 147
Fiat 147
The Fiat 147 was a three door hatchback compact car produced by Fiat in the Brazilian state of Minas Gerais from 1976 until 1986, when it was replaced by the Fiat Uno. It was the Brazilian variant of the Fiat 127...
, after testing with several prototypes developed by the Brazilian subsidiaries of Fiat
Fiat
FIAT, an acronym for Fabbrica Italiana Automobili Torino , is an Italian automobile manufacturer, engine manufacturer, financial, and industrial group based in Turin in the Italian region of Piedmont. Fiat was founded in 1899 by a group of investors including Giovanni Agnelli...
, Volkswagen
Volkswagen
Volkswagen is a German automobile manufacturer and is the original and biggest-selling marque of the Volkswagen Group, which now also owns the Audi, Bentley, Bugatti, Lamborghini, SEAT, and Škoda marques and the truck manufacturer Scania.Volkswagen means "people's car" in German, where it is...
, General Motors
General Motors
General Motors Company , commonly known as GM, formerly incorporated as General Motors Corporation, is an American multinational automotive corporation headquartered in Detroit, Michigan and the world's second-largest automaker in 2010...
and Ford
Ford Motor Company
Ford Motor Company is an American multinational automaker based in Dearborn, Michigan, a suburb of Detroit. The automaker was founded by Henry Ford and incorporated on June 16, 1903. In addition to the Ford and Lincoln brands, Ford also owns a small stake in Mazda in Japan and Aston Martin in the UK...
. Since 2003, Brazilian newer flexible-fuel vehicle
Flexible-fuel vehicle
A flexible-fuel vehicle or dual-fuel vehicle is an alternative fuel vehicle with an internal combustion engine designed to run on more than one fuel, usually gasoline blended with either ethanol or methanol fuel, and both fuels are stored in the same common tank...
s are capable of running on pure hydrous ethanol (E100) or blended with any combination of E20 to E25 gasoline (a mixture made with anhydrous
Anhydrous
As a general term, a substance is said to be anhydrous if it contains no water. The way of achieving the anhydrous form differs from one substance to another...
ethanol), the national mandatory blend.
E100 imposes a limitation on normal vehicle operation as ethanol's lower evaporative pressure (as compared to gasoline) causes problems when cold starting the engine at temperatures below 15 °C (59 °F). For this reason both pure ethanol and E100 flexible-fuel vehicles are built with an additional small gasoline reservoir inside the engine compartment to help in starting the engine when cold by initially injecting gasoline. Once started, the engine is then switched back to ethanol. An improved flex engine generation was developed to eliminate the need for the secondary gas tank by warming the ethanol fuel during starting, and allowing flex vehicles to do a normal cold start at temperatures as low as -5 C, the lowest temperature expected anywhere in the Brazilian territory. The Polo E-Flex
Volkswagen Polo
The Volkswagen Polo is a supermini car manufactured by Volkswagen. It is sold in Europe and other markets worldwide in hatchback, saloon, coupé and estate variants....
, launched in March 2009, was the first flex fuel model without an auxiliary tank for cold start. The warming system is called Flex Start and was developed by Robert Bosch GmbH
Robert Bosch GmbH
Robert Bosch GmbH is a multinational engineering and electronics company headquartered in Gerlingen, near Stuttgart, Germany. It is the world's largest supplier of automotive components...
.
Swedish carmakers have developed ethanol only capable engines for the new Saab Aero X BioPower 100 Concept E100, with a V6 engine which is fuelled entirely by E100 bioethanol, and the limited edition of the Koenigsegg CCXR
Koenigsegg CCXR
The Koenigsegg CCXR is a mid-engined roadster from Swedish car manufacturer Koenigsegg. The CCXR is powered by a modified twin-supercharged V8 engine from the CCX, converted to use E85 or E100 ethanol fuel as well as standard 98 octane petrol...
, a version of the CCX
Koenigsegg CCX
The Koenigsegg CCX is a mid-engined roadster from Swedish car manufacturer Koenigsegg. The CCX has been engineered to comply with the U.S. regulation and market demands and is a newer design that replaced the Koenigsegg CCR....
converted to use E85 or E100, as well as standard 98 octane gasoline, and currently the fastest and most powerful flexible fuel vehicle with its twin-supercharged V8 producing 1018 hp when running on biofuel, as compared to 806 hp on 91 octane
Octane rating
Octane rating or octane number is a standard measure of the anti-knock properties of a motor or aviation fuel. The higher the octane number, the more compression the fuel can withstand before detonating...
unleaded gasoline.
The higher fuel efficiency of E100 in high performance race cars resulted in Indianapolis 500
Indianapolis 500
The Indianapolis 500-Mile Race, also known as the Indianapolis 500, the 500 Miles at Indianapolis, the Indy 500 or The 500, is an American automobile race, held annually, typically on the last weekend in May at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway in Speedway, Indiana...
races in 2007 and 2008 being run on 100 percent fuel grade ethanol.
Modifications to engines
The use of ethanol blends in conventional gasoline vehicles is restricted to low mixtures, as ethanol is corrosive and can degrade some of the materials in the engine and fuel system. Also, the engine has to be adjusted for a higher compression ratioCompression ratio
The 'compression ratio' of an internal-combustion engine or external combustion engine is a value that represents the ratio of the volume of its combustion chamber from its largest capacity to its smallest capacity...
as compared to a pure gasoline engine in order to take advantage of ethanol’s higher oxygen content, thus allowing an improvement in fuel efficiency and a reduction of tailpipe emissions. The following table shows the required modifications to gasoline engines to run smoothly and without degrading any materials. This information is based on the modifications made by the Brazilian automotive industry at the beginning of the ethanol program in that country in the late seventies, and reflects the experience of Volkswagen do Brasil
Volkswagen do Brasil
Volkswagen do Brasil Ltda. is a subsidiary arm of Volkswagen Group, established in 1953.-Brazilian developed Volkswagens:Many of its models were designed especially for Brazil:*Brasilia*SP1 & SP2*1500/Variant/Variant II*Karmann Ghia TC...
.
| Required adjustments to gasoline engines to cope with different blends of ethanol fuel | ||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ethanol blend |
Carburetor Carburetor A carburetor , carburettor, or carburetter is a device that blends air and fuel for an internal combustion engine. It is sometimes shortened to carb in North America and the United Kingdom.... |
Fuel Injection Fuel injection Fuel injection is a system for admitting fuel into an internal combustion engine. It has become the primary fuel delivery system used in automotive petrol engines, having almost completely replaced carburetors in the late 1980s.... |
Fuel pump Fuel pump A fuel pump is a frequently essential component on a car or other internal combustion engined device. Many engines do not require any fuel pump at all, requiring only gravity to feed fuel from the fuel tank through a line or hose to the engine... |
Fuel pressure device |
Fuel filter Fuel filter A fuel filter is a filter in the fuel line that screens out dirt and rust particles from the fuel, normally made into cartridges containing a filter paper. They are found in most internal combustion engines.... |
Ignition system Ignition system An ignition system is a system for igniting a fuel-air mixture. Ignition systems are well known in the field of internal combustion engines such as those used in petrol engines used to power the majority of motor vehicles, but they are also used in many other applications such as in oil-fired and... |
Evaporative system |
Fuel tank |
Catalytic converter Catalytic converter A catalytic converter is a device used to convert toxic exhaust emissions from an internal combustion engine into non-toxic substances. Inside a catalytic converter, a catalyst stimulates a chemical reaction in which noxious byproducts of combustion are converted to less toxic substances by dint... |
Basic engine |
Motor oil Motor oil Motor oil or engine oil is an oil used for lubrication of various internal combustion engines. The main function is to lubricate moving parts; it also cleans, inhibits corrosion, improves sealing, and cools the engine by carrying heat away from moving parts.Motor oils are derived from... |
Intake manifold |
Exhaust system Exhaust system An exhaust system is usually tubing used to guide reaction exhaust gases away from a controlled combustion inside an engine or stove. The entire system conveys burnt gases from the engine and includes one or more exhaust pipes... |
Cold start system |
| ≤ 5% | Any vehicle | |||||||||||||
| E5 to E10 | Vehicles up to 15–20 years old | |||||||||||||
| E10 to E25 | Specially designed vehicles | Vehicles up to 15-20 yrs old | ||||||||||||
| E25 to E85 | Specially designed vehicles | |||||||||||||
| E85 to E100 | Specially designed vehicles | |||||||||||||
| |
|
|||||||||||||
| Source: Josehp (2007) in The Royal Society (2008), "Sustainable biofuels: prospects and challenges, pp. 35-36". | ||||||||||||||
Other disadvantages
Disadvantages to ethanol fuel blends when used in engines designed exclusively for gasoline include lowered fuel mileage, metal corrosion, deterioration of plastic and rubber fuel system components, clogged fuel systems, fuel injectors, and carburetors, delamination of composite fuel tanks, varnish buildup on engine parts, damaged or destroyed internal engine components, water absorption, fuel phase separation, and shortened fuel storage life. Many major auto, marine, motorcycle, lawn equipment, generator, and other internal combustion engine manufacturers have issued warnings and precautions about the use of ethanol-blended gasolines of any type in their engines, and the Federal Aviation AdministrationFederal Aviation Administration
The Federal Aviation Administration is the national aviation authority of the United States. An agency of the United States Department of Transportation, it has authority to regulate and oversee all aspects of civil aviation in the U.S...
and major aviation engine manufacturers have prohibited the use of automotive gasolines blended with ethanol in light aircraft due to safety issues from fuel system and engine damage.
See also
- Ethanol fuelEthanol fuelEthanol fuel is ethanol , the same type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. It is most often used as a motor fuel, mainly as a biofuel additive for gasoline. World ethanol production for transport fuel tripled between 2000 and 2007 from 17 billion to more than 52 billion litres...
- Ethanol fuel in BrazilEthanol fuel in BrazilBrazil is the world's second largest producer of ethanol fuel and the world's largest exporter. Together, Brazil and the United States lead the industrial production of ethanol fuel, accounting together for 87.8% of the world's production in 2010. In 2010 Brazil produced 26.2 billion litres Brazil...
- Ethanol fuel in Sweden
- Ethanol fuel in the United StatesEthanol fuel in the United StatesThe United States became the world's largest producer of ethanol fuel in 2005. The U.S. produced 13.2 billion U.S. liquid gallons of ethanol fuel in 2010, and together with Brazil, accounted for 88% of that year's global production...