Congregation of Windesheim
Encyclopedia
The Congregation of Windesheim was a branch of the Augustinians
. It took its name from an Augustinian monastery about four miles south of Zwolle
on the IJssel
, in the Netherlands
.
The congregation of canons regular
, of which this was the chief house, was an offshoot of the Brethren of the Common Life
and played a considerable part in the reform movement within the Dutch and German Catholic Church in the century before the Reformation
.
, were sent to the monastery of Eymsteyn (founded 1382) to learn the usages of the Augustinian Canons. In 1386, they erected huts for a temporary monastery at Windesheim, and in March of the following year commenced the building of a monastery and church, which were consecrated by Hubert Lebene, titular Bishop
of Hippo
[but which see?] and auxiliary bishop
of Utrecht, on 17 October 1387. At the same time the six brethren took their vows.
The real founder of the greatness of Windesheim was Johann Vos, the second prior
(1391–1424), under whom the number of religious was greatly increased and many foundations were made. The first of these were Marienborn
near Arnheim
and Niewlicht near Hoorn
(1392). These two houses, Eymsteyn and the mother-house were the first members of the congregation or chapter (capitulum) as it was then called. It was approved and received certain privileges from Boniface IX in 1395. The constitutions added to the Rule of St. Augustine
were approved by pope Martin V
at the Council of Constance
. An annual general chapter was held at Windesheim "after the fashion of the brethren of the Carthusian
Order," at which all the prior
s proffered their resignation. The prior of Windesheim was the superior
prior, or head of the congregation, with considerable powers. After 1573 a prior-general was elected from among the priors of the monasteries.
The choir Office at first followed in general the Ordinarium of Utrecht (for the reform of the Windesheim liturgical book
s by Radulfus de Rivo, Dean
of Tongeren, see Mohlbeg, op. cit. infra). The Windesheim Breviary was printed at Louvain in 1546.
The life of the canons was strict, but not over-severe. A postulant
was asked if he could sleep well, eat well, and obey well, since, "...these three points are the foundation of stability in the monastic life." The constitutions exhibit in many points the influence of the Carthusian statutes. The canons wore a black hood and scapular
, with a white tunic
and rochet
; the lay brother
s were dressed in gray.
By 1407, the congregation numbered twelve monasteries. In 1413, it was joined by the seven Brabant
houses of the Groenendaal congregation, of which the famous mystic John of Ruysbroek had been a member, and in 1430, by the twelve houses of the Congregation of Neuss in the Archdiocese of Cologne. When the Windesheim Congregation reached the height of its prosperity towards the end of the fifteenth century, it numbered eighty-six houses of canons and sixteen of nuns, mostly situated in what is the Netherlands, and in the ecclesiastical Province of Cologne. Those that survived the Reformation (they still numbered 32 in 1728) were suppressed at the end of the eighteenth or beginning of the nineteenth century. Uden
in Holland was the only survivor at the early 20th century (Heimbucher, 11, 43). The destruction of Windesheim itself began in 1572, when the altars in the church were destroyed by the people of Zwolle; the suppression came in 1581. There are practically no remains of the buildings. The last prior of Windesheim, Marcellus Lentius (d. 1603), never obtained possession of this monastery.
, five Cistercian and three Premonstratensian
), in whose reform Busch had a share; perhaps his greatest conquest was the winning to the side of reform of Johann Hagen, for thirty years (1439–69) Abbot of Bursfeld and the initiator of the Benedictine Congregation known as the Union of Bursfeld. In 1451, Busch was entrusted by his friend Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa, papal legate
of Nicholas V, with the reform of the North German monasteries, and with such labours he was busied till shortly before his death.
Similar work on a smaller scale was carried out by other Windesheimers. Some Protestant writers have claimed the Windesheim reformers as forerunners of the Protestant Reformation. This is a misapprehension of the whole spirit of the canons of Windesheim; their object was the reform of morals, not the overthrow of dogma. The conduct of the communities of Windesheim and Mount St. Agnes, who preferred exile to the non-observance of an interdict published by Martin V, exemplifies their spirit of obedience to the Holy See.
Bible text and of the text of various Church Fathers
was also undertaken. Gabriel Biel
, "the last German scholastic", was a member of the congregation.
A number of books were translated into German, and besides the regular monastic library, a library of German works was established in each house for lending to the people.
Augustinians
The term Augustinians, named after Saint Augustine of Hippo , applies to two separate and unrelated types of Catholic religious orders:...
. It took its name from an Augustinian monastery about four miles south of Zwolle
Zwolle
Zwolle is a municipality and the capital city of the province of Overijssel, Netherlands, 120 kilometers northeast of Amsterdam. Zwolle has about 120,000 citizens.-History:...
on the IJssel
IJssel
River IJssel , sometimes called Gelderse IJssel to avoid confusion with its Hollandse IJssel namesake in the west of the Netherlands, is a branch of the Rhine in the Dutch provinces of Gelderland and Overijssel...
, in the Netherlands
Netherlands
The Netherlands is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with several islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders...
.
The congregation of canons regular
Canons Regular
Canons Regular are members of certain bodies of Canons living in community under the Augustinian Rule , and sharing their property in common...
, of which this was the chief house, was an offshoot of the Brethren of the Common Life
Brethren of the Common Life
The Brethren of the Common Life was a Roman Catholic pietist religious community founded in the 14th century by Gerard Groote, formerly a successful and worldly educator who had had a religious experience and preached a life of simple devotion to Jesus Christ...
and played a considerable part in the reform movement within the Dutch and German Catholic Church in the century before the Reformation
Protestant Reformation
The Protestant Reformation was a 16th-century split within Western Christianity initiated by Martin Luther, John Calvin and other early Protestants. The efforts of the self-described "reformers", who objected to the doctrines, rituals and ecclesiastical structure of the Roman Catholic Church, led...
.
History
The Brethren of the Common Life, who did not form an order or congregation strictly so called, had become obnoxious to the mendicant friars and the object of their attacks. To remedy this, Gerard Groote advised on his deathbed in 1384 that some of the brethren should adopt the rule of an approved order (Chron. Wind., 263). His successor, Florence Radewyns, carried this advice into effect. Six of the brethren, carefully chosen as specially fitted for the work, among them John, elder brother of Thomas a KempisThomas à Kempis
Thomas à Kempis was a late Medieval Catholic monk and the probable author of The Imitation of Christ, which is one of the best known Christian books on devotion. His name means, "Thomas of Kempen", his home town and in German he is known as Thomas von Kempen...
, were sent to the monastery of Eymsteyn (founded 1382) to learn the usages of the Augustinian Canons. In 1386, they erected huts for a temporary monastery at Windesheim, and in March of the following year commenced the building of a monastery and church, which were consecrated by Hubert Lebene, titular Bishop
Titular bishop
A titular bishop in various churches is a bishop who is not in charge of a diocese.By definition a bishop is an "overseer" of a community of the faithful, so when a priest is ordained a bishop the tradition of the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches is that he be ordained for a specific place...
of Hippo
Hippo Regius
Hippo Regius is the ancient name of the modern city of Annaba, in Algeria. Under this name, it was a major city in Roman Africa, hosting several early Christian councils, and was the home of the philosopher and theologian Augustine of Hippo...
[but which see?] and auxiliary bishop
Auxiliary bishop
An auxiliary bishop, in the Roman Catholic Church, is an additional bishop assigned to a diocese because the diocesan bishop is unable to perform his functions, the diocese is so extensive that it requires more than one bishop to administer, or the diocese is attached to a royal or imperial office...
of Utrecht, on 17 October 1387. At the same time the six brethren took their vows.
The real founder of the greatness of Windesheim was Johann Vos, the second prior
Prior
Prior is an ecclesiastical title, derived from the Latin adjective for 'earlier, first', with several notable uses.-Monastic superiors:A Prior is a monastic superior, usually lower in rank than an Abbot. In the Rule of St...
(1391–1424), under whom the number of religious was greatly increased and many foundations were made. The first of these were Marienborn
Marienborn
Marienborn is a village and a former municipality in the Börde district in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. Since 1 January 2010, it has been part of the municipality of Sommersdorf. It is about southwest of Haldensleben...
near Arnheim
Arnheim
Arnheim may refer to:* Edith Arnheim , Swedish tennis player* Fritz Arnheim , German historian* Gus Arnheim , American band leader* Rudolf Arnheim , German American author...
and Niewlicht near Hoorn
Hoorn
-Cities :* Purmerend * Enkhuizen * Alkmaar * Amsterdam * Lelystad * Den Helder * Leeuwarden -Towns :* Edam...
(1392). These two houses, Eymsteyn and the mother-house were the first members of the congregation or chapter (capitulum) as it was then called. It was approved and received certain privileges from Boniface IX in 1395. The constitutions added to the Rule of St. Augustine
Rule of St. Augustine
The Rule of St. Augustine is a religious rule employed by a large number of orders, including the Dominicans, Servites, Mercederians, and Augustinians.-Overview:...
were approved by pope Martin V
Pope Martin V
Pope Martin V , born Odo Colonna, was Pope from 1417 to 1431. His election effectively ended the Western Schism .-Biography:...
at the Council of Constance
Council of Constance
The Council of Constance is the 15th ecumenical council recognized by the Roman Catholic Church, held from 1414 to 1418. The council ended the Three-Popes Controversy, by deposing or accepting the resignation of the remaining Papal claimants and electing Pope Martin V.The Council also condemned and...
. An annual general chapter was held at Windesheim "after the fashion of the brethren of the Carthusian
Carthusian
The Carthusian Order, also called the Order of St. Bruno, is a Roman Catholic religious order of enclosed monastics. The order was founded by Saint Bruno of Cologne in 1084 and includes both monks and nuns...
Order," at which all the prior
Prior
Prior is an ecclesiastical title, derived from the Latin adjective for 'earlier, first', with several notable uses.-Monastic superiors:A Prior is a monastic superior, usually lower in rank than an Abbot. In the Rule of St...
s proffered their resignation. The prior of Windesheim was the superior
prior, or head of the congregation, with considerable powers. After 1573 a prior-general was elected from among the priors of the monasteries.
The choir Office at first followed in general the Ordinarium of Utrecht (for the reform of the Windesheim liturgical book
Liturgical book
A liturgical book is a book published by the authority of a church, that contains the text and directions for the liturgy of its official religious services.-Roman Catholic:...
s by Radulfus de Rivo, Dean
Dean (religion)
A dean, in a church context, is a cleric holding certain positions of authority within a religious hierarchy. The title is used mainly in the Anglican Communion and the Roman Catholic Church.-Anglican Communion:...
of Tongeren, see Mohlbeg, op. cit. infra). The Windesheim Breviary was printed at Louvain in 1546.
The life of the canons was strict, but not over-severe. A postulant
Postulant
A postulant was originally one who makes a request or demand; hence, a candidate. The use of the term is now generally restricted to those asking for admission into a monastery or a convent, both before actual admission and for the length of time preceding their admission into the novitiate...
was asked if he could sleep well, eat well, and obey well, since, "...these three points are the foundation of stability in the monastic life." The constitutions exhibit in many points the influence of the Carthusian statutes. The canons wore a black hood and scapular
Scapular
The term scapular as used today refers to two specific, yet related, Christian Sacramentals, namely the monastic and devotional scapulars, although both forms may simply be referred to as "scapular"....
, with a white tunic
Tunic
A tunic is any of several types of clothing for the body, of various lengths reaching from the shoulders to somewhere between the hips and the ankles...
and rochet
Rochet
A rochet is a white vestment generally worn by a Roman Catholic or Anglican Bishop in choir dress. It is unknown in the Eastern Churches. The rochet is similar to a surplice, except that the sleeves are narrower...
; the lay brother
Lay brother
In the most common usage, lay brothers are those members of Catholic religious orders, particularly of monastic orders, occupied primarily with manual labour and with the secular affairs of a monastery or friary, in contrast to the choir monks of the same monastery who are devoted mainly to the...
s were dressed in gray.
By 1407, the congregation numbered twelve monasteries. In 1413, it was joined by the seven Brabant
Duchy of Brabant
The Duchy of Brabant was a historical region in the Low Countries. Its territory consisted essentially of the three modern-day Belgian provinces of Flemish Brabant, Walloon Brabant and Antwerp, the Brussels-Capital Region and most of the present-day Dutch province of North Brabant.The Flag of...
houses of the Groenendaal congregation, of which the famous mystic John of Ruysbroek had been a member, and in 1430, by the twelve houses of the Congregation of Neuss in the Archdiocese of Cologne. When the Windesheim Congregation reached the height of its prosperity towards the end of the fifteenth century, it numbered eighty-six houses of canons and sixteen of nuns, mostly situated in what is the Netherlands, and in the ecclesiastical Province of Cologne. Those that survived the Reformation (they still numbered 32 in 1728) were suppressed at the end of the eighteenth or beginning of the nineteenth century. Uden
Uden
Uden is a municipality and a town in the province of Noord-Brabant, Netherlands.- History :Uden was first recorded around 1190 as “Uthen”. However, earlier settlements have been found in the areas of the modern day Moleneind, Vorstenburg and Bitswijk and evidence of ice-age settlements has been...
in Holland was the only survivor at the early 20th century (Heimbucher, 11, 43). The destruction of Windesheim itself began in 1572, when the altars in the church were destroyed by the people of Zwolle; the suppression came in 1581. There are practically no remains of the buildings. The last prior of Windesheim, Marcellus Lentius (d. 1603), never obtained possession of this monastery.
Reforming efforts
The chief historical importance of the Windesheim Canons lies in their reforming work. This was not confined to the reform of monasteries, but was extended to the secular clergy and the laity, whom they especially sought to bring to greater devotion toward the Blessed Sacrament and more frequent communion. The chief of the Windesheim monastic reformers, Johann Busch (b. 1399; d. 1480), a remarkable man, was clothed at Windesheim in 1419. At the chapter of 1424 Prior Johann Vos, who knew his own end was near, especially entrusted Busch and Hermann Kanten with the carrying out of his work of reform (Chron. Wind., 51). Grube gives a list of forty-three monasteries (twenty-seven Augustinian, eight BenedictineBenedictine
Benedictine refers to the spirituality and consecrated life in accordance with the Rule of St Benedict, written by Benedict of Nursia in the sixth century for the cenobitic communities he founded in central Italy. The most notable of these is Monte Cassino, the first monastery founded by Benedict...
, five Cistercian and three Premonstratensian
Premonstratensian
The Order of Canons Regular of Prémontré, also known as the Premonstratensians, the Norbertines, or in Britain and Ireland as the White Canons , are a Catholic religious order of canons regular founded at Prémontré near Laon in 1120 by Saint Norbert, who later became Archbishop of Magdeburg...
), in whose reform Busch had a share; perhaps his greatest conquest was the winning to the side of reform of Johann Hagen, for thirty years (1439–69) Abbot of Bursfeld and the initiator of the Benedictine Congregation known as the Union of Bursfeld. In 1451, Busch was entrusted by his friend Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa, papal legate
Papal legate
A papal legate – from the Latin, authentic Roman title Legatus – is a personal representative of the pope to foreign nations, or to some part of the Catholic Church. He is empowered on matters of Catholic Faith and for the settlement of ecclesiastical matters....
of Nicholas V, with the reform of the North German monasteries, and with such labours he was busied till shortly before his death.
Similar work on a smaller scale was carried out by other Windesheimers. Some Protestant writers have claimed the Windesheim reformers as forerunners of the Protestant Reformation. This is a misapprehension of the whole spirit of the canons of Windesheim; their object was the reform of morals, not the overthrow of dogma. The conduct of the communities of Windesheim and Mount St. Agnes, who preferred exile to the non-observance of an interdict published by Martin V, exemplifies their spirit of obedience to the Holy See.
Famous members and works
The Windesheimers numbered many writers, besides copyists and illuminators. Their most famous author was Thomas a' Kempis. Besides ascetical works, they also produced a number of chronicles, such as the "Chronicle of Windesheim" by Johann Busch. An emendation of the VulgateVulgate
The Vulgate is a late 4th-century Latin translation of the Bible. It was largely the work of St. Jerome, who was commissioned by Pope Damasus I in 382 to make a revision of the old Latin translations...
Bible text and of the text of various Church Fathers
Church Fathers
The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, Christian Fathers, or Fathers of the Church were early and influential theologians, eminent Christian teachers and great bishops. Their scholarly works were used as a precedent for centuries to come...
was also undertaken. Gabriel Biel
Gabriel Biel
Gabriel Biel was a German scholastic philosopher and member of the Brethren of the Common Life born in Speyer. In 1432 he was ordained to the priesthood and entered Heidelberg University. He succeeded academically and became an instructor in the faculty of the arts.- Life :His studies were pursued...
, "the last German scholastic", was a member of the congregation.
A number of books were translated into German, and besides the regular monastic library, a library of German works was established in each house for lending to the people.