Coordination (linguistics)
Encyclopedia
In linguistics
, a coordination is a complex syntactic structure that links together two or more elements, known as conjuncts or conjoins. Coordinators are typically: "and" and "or". The word "but" is also often considered a coordinator although it may have slightly different properties from others.
Coordination has a number of interesting linguistic properties.
Coordinating conjunctions
are often, though not always, used to link the conjuncts in a coordination. Depending on the number of conjunctions used, coordinations can be classified as "syndetic
", "asyndetic
", or "polysyndetic
".
Coordination can be contrasted with subordination
, a complex structure in which the component parts do not have parallel functions. This is also known as pseudo-coordination. The interest of pseudo-coordination lies in the ways this construction differs from coordination proper.
There are, however, a number of exceptions to the Rule of coordination of likes for example the following sentence.
The conjuncts generally have similar grammatical features (e.g. syntactic category, semantic function), and the coordinated structure as a whole retains most of the same properties as the individual conjuncts, although it may introduce new features (e.g. plurality).
Coordination constructions are strong islands for extraction; one cannot extract from any single conjunct.
The Across-the-Board Constraint
There is an exception to the islandhood property however: it is possible to extract from a coordination construction if one extracts the same constituent from both conjuncts simultaneously.
There are other apparent exceptions the Coordinate Structure Constraint and the Across-the-Board generalization and their integration to existing syntactic theory has been a long-standing disciplinary desideratum.
Pseudo-coordination appears to be absent in Dutch and German. The pseudo-coordinative construction is limited to a few verbs. In English, these verbs are typically "go", "try" and "sit". In other languages, typical pseudo-coordinative verbs and/or hendiadys predicates are egressive verbs (e.g. "go") and verbs of body posture (e.g. "sit", "stand" and "lie down").
A typical property of pseudo-coordinative constructions is that, unlike ordinary coordination, they appear to violate the Across-the-Board extraction property. In other words, it is possible to extract from one of the conjuncts.
It has been argued that pseudo-coordination is not a unitary phenomenon. Even in a single language such as English, the predicate "try" exhibits different pseudo-coordination properties to other predicates and other predicates such as "go" and "sit" can instantiate a number of different pseudo-coordinative construction types. On the other hand, it has been argued that at least some different types of pseudo-coordination can be analysed using ordinary coordination as opposed to stipulating that pseudo-coordinative `and' is a subordinator; the differences between the various constructions derive from the level of structure that is coordinated e.g. coordination of heads, coordination of VP etc.
Linguistics
Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. Linguistics can be broadly broken into three categories or subfields of study: language form, language meaning, and language in context....
, a coordination is a complex syntactic structure that links together two or more elements, known as conjuncts or conjoins. Coordinators are typically: "and" and "or". The word "but" is also often considered a coordinator although it may have slightly different properties from others.
Coordination has a number of interesting linguistic properties.
- Any syntactic category can be coordinated.
- It is subject to the Rule of Coordination of Likes
- It is subject to the Coordinate Structure Constraint.
- but is subject to an exception in the form of Across-the-Board extraction.
Coordinating conjunctions
Grammatical conjunction
In grammar, a conjunction is a part of speech that connects two words, sentences, phrases or clauses together. A discourse connective is a conjunction joining sentences. This definition may overlap with that of other parts of speech, so what constitutes a "conjunction" must be defined for each...
are often, though not always, used to link the conjuncts in a coordination. Depending on the number of conjunctions used, coordinations can be classified as "syndetic
Syndeton
Syndeton or syndetic coordination in grammar is a form of syntactic coordination of the elements of a sentence with the help of a coordinating conjunction....
", "asyndetic
Asyndeton
Asyndeton is a stylistic scheme in which conjunctions are deliberately omitted from a series of related clauses. Examples are veni, vidi, vici and its English translation "I came, I saw, I conquered." Its use can have the effect of speeding up the rhythm of a passage and making a single idea more...
", or "polysyndetic
Polysyndeton
Polysyndeton is the use of several conjunctions in close succession, especially where some might be omitted . It is a stylistic scheme used to achieve a variety of effects: it can increase the rhythm of prose, speed or slow its pace, convey solemnity or even ecstasy and childlike exuberance...
".
Coordination can be contrasted with subordination
Subordination (linguistics)
In linguistics, subordination is a complex syntactic construction in which one or more clauses are dependent on the main clause, such as The dog ran home after it had played with the ball. The italicized text is the subordinate clause...
, a complex structure in which the component parts do not have parallel functions. This is also known as pseudo-coordination. The interest of pseudo-coordination lies in the ways this construction differs from coordination proper.
Coordination of likes
The following examples show that like constituents can be coordinated but unlike ones generally cannot.- [Sarah and Xolani] went to town (coordination of NPs)
- [The chicken and the rice] go well together (coordination of DPs)
- [That the president understood the criticism and that he took action] was appreciated (coordination of CPs)
- The president [understood the criticism and took action] (coordination of VPs)
- (*)[Sarah and that the president understood the criticism] were appreciated
There are, however, a number of exceptions to the Rule of coordination of likes for example the following sentence.
- Sarah is a CEO and proud of her job.
The conjuncts generally have similar grammatical features (e.g. syntactic category, semantic function), and the coordinated structure as a whole retains most of the same properties as the individual conjuncts, although it may introduce new features (e.g. plurality).
Island Properties
The Coordinate Structure ConstraintCoordination constructions are strong islands for extraction; one cannot extract from any single conjunct.
- (*)Who and Sarah went to town?
- (*)Sarah and who went to town?
- (*)What did the president understand the criticism and take?
The Across-the-Board Constraint
There is an exception to the islandhood property however: it is possible to extract from a coordination construction if one extracts the same constituent from both conjuncts simultaneously.
- What did Sarah like and Xolani hate?
There are other apparent exceptions the Coordinate Structure Constraint and the Across-the-Board generalization and their integration to existing syntactic theory has been a long-standing disciplinary desideratum.
Pseudo-coordination
In pseudo-coordinative constructions, the coordinator, generally `and', appears to have a subordinating function. It occurs in many languages and is sometimes known as "hendiadys", and often, but not always, is used to convey a pejorative or idiomatic connotation. Among the Germanic languages, Pseudo-coordination occurs in English, Afrikaans, Norwegian, Danish and Swedish.Pseudo-coordination appears to be absent in Dutch and German. The pseudo-coordinative construction is limited to a few verbs. In English, these verbs are typically "go", "try" and "sit". In other languages, typical pseudo-coordinative verbs and/or hendiadys predicates are egressive verbs (e.g. "go") and verbs of body posture (e.g. "sit", "stand" and "lie down").
- Why don't you go and jump in the lake
- I will try and jump in the lake
- The pupils sat and read their textbooks
A typical property of pseudo-coordinative constructions is that, unlike ordinary coordination, they appear to violate the Across-the-Board extraction property. In other words, it is possible to extract from one of the conjuncts.
- What did she go and jump in t?
- What did she try and jump in
- Which textbooks did the pupils sit and read.
It has been argued that pseudo-coordination is not a unitary phenomenon. Even in a single language such as English, the predicate "try" exhibits different pseudo-coordination properties to other predicates and other predicates such as "go" and "sit" can instantiate a number of different pseudo-coordinative construction types. On the other hand, it has been argued that at least some different types of pseudo-coordination can be analysed using ordinary coordination as opposed to stipulating that pseudo-coordinative `and' is a subordinator; the differences between the various constructions derive from the level of structure that is coordinated e.g. coordination of heads, coordination of VP etc.
Other references
- Postal, P. (1998). Three investigations of extraction. Cambridge MA: MIT Press.
- Schmerling, S. (1975). Asymmetric coordination and rules of conversation. In P. Cole and J. Morgan (Eds). Speech Acts, Volume 3 of Syntax and semantics, pp211–231. New York: Academic Press.
See also
- ParataxisParataxisParataxis is a literary technique, in writing or speaking, that favors short, simple sentences, with the use of coordinating rather than subordinating conjunctions...
- Compound sentence (linguistics)Compound sentence (linguistics)A compound sentence is composed of at least two independent clauses. It does not require a dependent clause. The clauses are joined by a coordinating conjunction , a correlative conjunction , a semicolon that functions as a conjunction, or a conjunctive adverb preceded by a semicolon. A conjunction...