Cynegeticus
Encyclopedia
Cynegeticus or "Kynegetikos" (Derived from: Κυνηγετικόν = "Hunting" from the ancient Greek verb κυνηγέω/κυνηγώ, a composite of κύων = dog and άγω = to lead or bring; literally to lead or bring dogs), is a treatise by the ancient Greek
philosopher and military leader Xenophon
, usually translated as "On Hunting" or "Hunting with Dogs." It is one of the four works by Xenophon on the arts (each ends with -ikos/-icus). The other three are: Hipparchicus
("The Skilled Cavalry Commander") Peri Hippikes ("On Horsemanship"), Oeconomicus ("On Household Management").
and Artemis
bestowed game and hounds upon Chiron
the gentle centaur who used hunting to teach twenty-one heroes. The heroes mentioned are: Cephalus
, Asclepius
, Meilanion, Nestor
, Amphiaraus
, Peleus
, Telamon
, Meleager
, Theseus
, Hippolytus
, Palamedes, Odysseus
, Menestheus
, Diomedes
, Castor
, Polydeuces
, Machaon
, Podaleirius, Antilochus
, Aeneas
, and Achilles
. Xenophon goes on to describe the excellence of each individual "hero," although many of his reasons are rather awkward upon other instances of them in literature. Hunting, Xenophon claims in the conclusion to the chapter, "are the means by which men become good in war and in all things out of which must come excellence in thought and word and deed" (I.18, E. C. Marchant translation).
Xenophon next explains how to have the puppies follow the hounds while hunting and eventually let them catch the hare and let them have her. They are to be fed when they are near the nets, so if they are lost they will return to be fed. Eventually the hounds will regard the hare as enemy and the master will feed them himself when this has been accomplished.
Once he mentions the military he goes on to discuss the benefits of hunting as war training such as the recovery of fellow troops in a difficult area. Xenophon writes, “For men who are sound in body and mind may always stand on the threshold of success” (XII.5). Hunting also “makes men sober and upright … because they are trained in the school of truth” (XII.7). These men can do whatever honorable employment they desire and make good soldiers and generals because they desire virtue.
Xenophon goes on to defend hunting from those who think it causes them to avoid domestic affairs, however he believes that they will instead protect and assist their fellow citizens. He writes, “Those then, who have given themselves up to continual toil and learning hold for their own portion laborious lessons and exercises, but they hold safety for the cities” (XII.15). Toil is required to discover what is good, without such labor they cannot become pious or wise.
Xenophon again mentions Chiron
, who he says began teaching lessons in virtue with hunting and it is due to this education that they became honored men. “That all desire Virtue is obvious,” explains Xenophon, “but because they must toil if they are to gain her, the many fall away.” He then turns to the unseen (feminine) form of Virtue who sees all men and honors those who are good to her, “but casts out the bad.”
He eventually concludes the work stressing that hunting makes men pious and pleases the gods, “For all men who have loved hunting have been good: and not men only, but those women also to whom the goddess Artemis
has given this blessing, Atalanta
and Procris
and others like them.
, written as a supplement to Xenophon's, and Latin poems by Grattius
and Nemesianus.
This genre of literature, generally about breeding and the care and use of dogs and horses, is known as Cynegeticon or Cynegetica.
Ancient Greek
Ancient Greek is the stage of the Greek language in the periods spanning the times c. 9th–6th centuries BC, , c. 5th–4th centuries BC , and the c. 3rd century BC – 6th century AD of ancient Greece and the ancient world; being predated in the 2nd millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek...
philosopher and military leader Xenophon
Xenophon
Xenophon , son of Gryllus, of the deme Erchia of Athens, also known as Xenophon of Athens, was a Greek historian, soldier, mercenary, philosopher and a contemporary and admirer of Socrates...
, usually translated as "On Hunting" or "Hunting with Dogs." It is one of the four works by Xenophon on the arts (each ends with -ikos/-icus). The other three are: Hipparchicus
Hipparchicus
Hipparchicus is the name usually given to , hipparchikòs, one of the two treatises on horsemanship by the Athenian historian and soldier Xenophon . Other common titles for this work include The cavalry commander and The cavalry general...
("The Skilled Cavalry Commander") Peri Hippikes ("On Horsemanship"), Oeconomicus ("On Household Management").
Chapter 1
Xenophon begins discussing the importance of hunting and how the gods ApolloApollo
Apollo is one of the most important and complex of the Olympian deities in Greek and Roman mythology...
and Artemis
Artemis
Artemis was one of the most widely venerated of the Ancient Greek deities. Her Roman equivalent is Diana. Some scholars believe that the name and indeed the goddess herself was originally pre-Greek. Homer refers to her as Artemis Agrotera, Potnia Theron: "Artemis of the wildland, Mistress of Animals"...
bestowed game and hounds upon Chiron
Chiron
In Greek mythology, Chiron was held to be the superlative centaur among his brethren.-History:Like the satyrs, centaurs were notorious for being wild and lusty, overly indulgent drinkers and carousers, given to violence when intoxicated, and generally uncultured delinquents...
the gentle centaur who used hunting to teach twenty-one heroes. The heroes mentioned are: Cephalus
Cephalus
Cephalus is an Ancient Greek name, used both for the hero-figure in Greek mythology and carried as a theophoric name by historical persons. The word kephalos is Greek for "head", perhaps used here because Cephalus was the founding "head" of a great family that includes Odysseus...
, Asclepius
Asclepius
Asclepius is the God of Medicine and Healing in ancient Greek religion. Asclepius represents the healing aspect of the medical arts; his daughters are Hygieia , Iaso , Aceso , Aglæa/Ægle , and Panacea...
, Meilanion, Nestor
Nestor (mythology)
In Greek mythology, Nestor of Gerenia was the son of Neleus and Chloris and the King of Pylos. He became king after Heracles killed Neleus and all of Nestor's siblings...
, Amphiaraus
Amphiaraus
In Greek mythology, Amphiaraus was the son of Oecles and Hypermnestra, and husband of Eriphyle. Amphiaraus was the King of Argos along with Adrastus— the brother of Amphiaraus' wife, Eriphyle— and Iphis. Amphiaraus was a seer, and greatly honored in his time...
, Peleus
Peleus
In Greek mythology, Pēleus was a hero whose myth was already known to the hearers of Homer in the late 8th century BCE. Peleus was the son of Aeacus, king of the island of Aegina, and Endeïs, the oread of Mount Pelion in Thessaly; he was the father of Achilles...
, Telamon
Telamon
In Greek mythology, Telamon , son of the king Aeacus, of Aegina, and Endeis and brother of Peleus, accompanied Jason as one of his Argonauts, and was present at the hunt for the Calydonian Boar. In the Iliad he was the father of Greek heroes Ajax the Great and Teucer the Archer by different...
, Meleager
Meleager
In Greek mythology, Meleager was a hero venerated in his temenos at Calydon in Aetolia. He was already famed as the host of the Calydonian boar hunt in the epic tradition that was reworked by Homer....
, Theseus
Theseus
For other uses, see Theseus Theseus was the mythical founder-king of Athens, son of Aethra, and fathered by Aegeus and Poseidon, both of whom Aethra had slept with in one night. Theseus was a founder-hero, like Perseus, Cadmus, or Heracles, all of whom battled and overcame foes that were...
, Hippolytus
Hippolytus (mythology)
thumb|260px|The Death of Hippolytus, by [[Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema]] .In Greek mythology, Hippolytus was a son of Theseus and either Antiope or Hippolyte...
, Palamedes, Odysseus
Odysseus
Odysseus or Ulysses was a legendary Greek king of Ithaca and the hero of Homer's epic poem the Odyssey. Odysseus also plays a key role in Homer's Iliad and other works in the Epic Cycle....
, Menestheus
Menestheus
Menestheus , the son of Peteus, son of Orneus, son of Erechtheus, was a legendary King of Athens during the Trojan War. He was set up as king by the Dioscuri when Theseus travelled to the underworld, and at his return Menestheus exiled him from the city.Menestheus was one of the suitors of Helen of...
, Diomedes
Diomedes
Diomedes or Diomed is a hero in Greek mythology, known for his participation in the Trojan War.He was born to Tydeus and Deipyle and later became King of Argos, succeeding his maternal grandfather, Adrastus. In Homer's Iliad Diomedes is regarded alongside Ajax as one of the best warriors of all...
, Castor
Castor and Pollux
In Greek and Roman mythology, Castor and Pollux or Polydeuces were twin brothers, together known as the Dioscuri . Their mother was Leda, but Castor was the mortal son of Tyndareus, king of Sparta, and Pollux the divine son of Zeus, who visited Leda in the guise of a swan...
, Polydeuces
Castor and Pollux
In Greek and Roman mythology, Castor and Pollux or Polydeuces were twin brothers, together known as the Dioscuri . Their mother was Leda, but Castor was the mortal son of Tyndareus, king of Sparta, and Pollux the divine son of Zeus, who visited Leda in the guise of a swan...
, Machaon
Machaon
-In Entomology:*Papilio machaon, or Old World Swallowtail, a butterfly named by Carl Linnaeus...
, Podaleirius, Antilochus
Antilochus
In Greek mythology, Antilochus was the son of Nestor, king of Pylos. One of the suitors of Helen of Troy, he accompanied his father and his brother Thrasymedes to the Trojan War. He was distinguished for his beauty, swiftness of foot, and skill as a charioteer...
, Aeneas
Aeneas
Aeneas , in Greco-Roman mythology, was a Trojan hero, the son of the prince Anchises and the goddess Aphrodite. His father was the second cousin of King Priam of Troy, making Aeneas Priam's second cousin, once removed. The journey of Aeneas from Troy , which led to the founding a hamlet south of...
, and Achilles
Achilles
In Greek mythology, Achilles was a Greek hero of the Trojan War, the central character and the greatest warrior of Homer's Iliad.Plato named Achilles the handsomest of the heroes assembled against Troy....
. Xenophon goes on to describe the excellence of each individual "hero," although many of his reasons are rather awkward upon other instances of them in literature. Hunting, Xenophon claims in the conclusion to the chapter, "are the means by which men become good in war and in all things out of which must come excellence in thought and word and deed" (I.18, E. C. Marchant translation).
Chapters 2
Xenophon attends to the young man who is to hunt and his attire with explanation to each items purpose, and also the net-keeper who is to assist him, including a brief detail of the net required.Chapter 3
Xenophon writes concerning the two types of hounds to be used: the Castorian and the Vulpine. He gives extremely detailed descriptions of the temperament of various dogs. Some of defects in the hounds are due to nature, but they can also be due to bad training.Chapter 4
The physical characteristics of the superior hound are described, as well as the initial training needed in various seasons for the proper hunting of hares.Chapter 5
The seasons and the difficulties particular to each of them in the pursuit of hares are presented. Also the physical characteristics and the habits of the hare are analyzed at length.Chapter 6
Xenophon begins with means of restraining hounds before they are off to hunt, but quickly moves into the early morning preparations for the hunt. Xenophon also discusses how the net-keeper is to prepare himself. Once the hunt has begun and the hunting party has reached a place to find a hare they are to offer a “vow to Apollo and Artemis the Huntress” that they will share their prize with them. It is only now that the hound is to be let loose to find the trail of the hare, which is will pursue when it is found. Once the hunt has begun the huntsman should verbally praise the hound. If the hare is caught in the first attempt the hounds should be brought back in and they should search for another. Otherwise the pursuit has really begun, and Xenophon really makes a game of it with constant verbal remarks towards the hounds. Once the dogs are tired from hunting the huntsman should search on his own.Chapter 7
Discusses the proper breeding and the methods for raising the puppies. Xenophon also lists the proper names for hounds: Psyche, Pluck, Buckler, Spigot, Lance, Lurcher, Watch, Keeper, Brigade, Fencer, Butcher, Blazer, Prowess, Craftsman, Forester, Counsellor, Spoiler, Hurry, Fury, Growler, Riot, Bloomer, Rome, Blossom, Hebe, Hilary, Jolity, Gazer, Eyebright, Much, Force, Trooper, Bustle, Bubbler, Rockdove, Stubborn, Yelp, Killer, Pele-mele, Strongboy, Sky, Sunbeam, Bodkin, Wistful, Gnome, Tracks, Dash. Each of the names are short so they can be said easily.Xenophon next explains how to have the puppies follow the hounds while hunting and eventually let them catch the hare and let them have her. They are to be fed when they are near the nets, so if they are lost they will return to be fed. Eventually the hounds will regard the hare as enemy and the master will feed them himself when this has been accomplished.
Chapter 9
Xenophon ends the discussion of hunting hares and begins discussing how to hunt fawns, deer, and calves. He also now suggests using the Indian hound because they are larger, quicker, and more courageous. The first mention of traps is discussed when hunting deer, in particular Xenophon discusses a caltrop at length.Chapter 10
The game now gets larger and more difficult, requiring many traps including nets, javelins, spears, and caltrops as well as different species of hounds including Indian, Cretan, Locrian, and Laconian. The net now requires fifteen strand ropes rather than the nine strands used for the hares. The boar requires a great deal more effort, and it will become not only a pursuit but a fight. Only now does Xenophon discuss the deaths of many hounds and the risks involved for the hunter.Chapter 11
Xenophon moves outside of Greece to other countries discussing how they hunt lions, leopards, lynxes, panthers, bears, and other large beasts. The game are frequently poisoned through food or caught with the use of goat as a lure. This is no longer a pursuit, but merely capture.Chapter 12
Xenophon ends the discussion on the practical side of hunting and explains the benefits of hunting. First he discusses the health benefits of improved sight and hearing, longevity, and lastly that it is the best training for war.Once he mentions the military he goes on to discuss the benefits of hunting as war training such as the recovery of fellow troops in a difficult area. Xenophon writes, “For men who are sound in body and mind may always stand on the threshold of success” (XII.5). Hunting also “makes men sober and upright … because they are trained in the school of truth” (XII.7). These men can do whatever honorable employment they desire and make good soldiers and generals because they desire virtue.
Xenophon goes on to defend hunting from those who think it causes them to avoid domestic affairs, however he believes that they will instead protect and assist their fellow citizens. He writes, “Those then, who have given themselves up to continual toil and learning hold for their own portion laborious lessons and exercises, but they hold safety for the cities” (XII.15). Toil is required to discover what is good, without such labor they cannot become pious or wise.
Xenophon again mentions Chiron
Chiron
In Greek mythology, Chiron was held to be the superlative centaur among his brethren.-History:Like the satyrs, centaurs were notorious for being wild and lusty, overly indulgent drinkers and carousers, given to violence when intoxicated, and generally uncultured delinquents...
, who he says began teaching lessons in virtue with hunting and it is due to this education that they became honored men. “That all desire Virtue is obvious,” explains Xenophon, “but because they must toil if they are to gain her, the many fall away.” He then turns to the unseen (feminine) form of Virtue who sees all men and honors those who are good to her, “but casts out the bad.”
Chapter 13
Xenophon switches to the discussion of the sophists who teach merely words but not thoughts or deed. (In his Memorabilia he stresses how his teacher Socrates turned men to virtue and then to action.) He complains of the sophists flourished language without any stress upon bringing their students to virtue. He explains his own objective: “It may well be that I fail to express myself in subtle language,388 nor do I pretend to aim at subtlety; what I do aim at is to express rightly-conceived thoughts such as may serve the need of those who have been nobly disciplined in virtue; for it is not words and names that give instruction, but thoughts and sentiments worthy the name” (XIII.5). He then writes further about his own writing.He eventually concludes the work stressing that hunting makes men pious and pleases the gods, “For all men who have loved hunting have been good: and not men only, but those women also to whom the goddess Artemis
Artemis
Artemis was one of the most widely venerated of the Ancient Greek deities. Her Roman equivalent is Diana. Some scholars believe that the name and indeed the goddess herself was originally pre-Greek. Homer refers to her as Artemis Agrotera, Potnia Theron: "Artemis of the wildland, Mistress of Animals"...
has given this blessing, Atalanta
Atalanta
Atalanta is a character in Greek mythology.-Legend:Atalanta was the daughter of Iasus , a Boeotian or an Arcadian princess . She is often described as a goddess. Apollodorus is the only one who gives an account of Atalanta’s birth and upbringing...
and Procris
Procris
In Greek mythology, Procris was the daughter of Erechtheus, king of Athens and his wife, Praxithea. She married Cephalus, the son of Deioneus. Procris had at least two sisters, Creusa and Orithyia...
and others like them.
Cynegeticon
There is also a much later prose work of the same name by ArrianArrian
Lucius Flavius Arrianus 'Xenophon , known in English as Arrian , and Arrian of Nicomedia, was a Roman historian, public servant, a military commander and a philosopher of the 2nd-century Roman period...
, written as a supplement to Xenophon's, and Latin poems by Grattius
Grattius
Grattius was a Roman poet of the age of Augustus. He was the author of a Cynegetica, a poem on hunting, of which 541 hexameter lines remain. He describes various kinds of game, methods of hunting, and the best breeds of horses and dogs....
and Nemesianus.
This genre of literature, generally about breeding and the care and use of dogs and horses, is known as Cynegeticon or Cynegetica.
Translations
- William Blane and William Somerville. Cynegetica; Or, Essays on Sporting: Consisting of Observations on Hare Hunting &c. &c., To Which Is Added, The Chase: a Poem. London: Printed for J. Stockdale, 1788. Extracts: Xenophon, §5-7; Arrian §1-22. Google Books
- William Dansey. Arrian on Coursing. The Cynegeticus of the Younger Xenophon, Translated from the Greek, with Classical and Practical Annotations, and a Brief Sketch of the Life and Writings of the Author. To Which Is Added an Appendix, Containing Some Account of the Canes Venatici of Classical Antiquity. London: J. Bohn, 1831. archive link
- E. C. Marchant. Xenophon. Scripta Minora. Loeb Classical LibraryLoeb Classical LibraryThe Loeb Classical Library is a series of books, today published by Harvard University Press, which presents important works of ancient Greek and Latin Literature in a way designed to make the text accessible to the broadest possible audience, by presenting the original Greek or Latin text on each...
. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press. 1925. Xenophon only, with other works. Greek and English. Perseus link - Denison Bingham Hull. Hounds and Hunting in Ancient Greece. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964. Contains both Xenophon and Arrian.
- A. A. Phillips and Malcolm M. Willcock. Xenophon & Arrian, On hunting (Kynēgetikos). Warminster, Eng: Aris & Phillips, 1999. Greek and English.