Darlington transistor
Encyclopedia
In electronics
, the Darlington transistor (often called a Darlington pair) is a compound structure consisting of two bipolar transistors (either integrated or separated devices) connected in such a way that the current amplified by the first transistor is amplified further by the second one. This configuration gives a much higher current
gain
than each transistor taken separately and, in the case of integrated devices, can take less space than two individual transistors because they can use a shared collector. Integrated Darlington pairs come packaged singly in transistor-like packages or as an array of devices (usually eight) in an integrated circuit
.
The Darlington configuration was invented by Bell Laboratories engineer Sidney Darlington
in 1953. He patent
ed the idea of having two or three transistors on a single chip sharing a collector.
A similar configuration but with transistors of opposite type (NPN and PNP) is the Sziklai pair
, sometimes called the "complementary Darlington."
A general relation between the compound current gain and the individual gains is given by:
If β1 and β2 are high enough (hundreds), this relation can be approximated with:
A typical modern device has a current gain of 1000 or more, so that only a small base current is needed to make the pair switch on. However, this high current gain comes with several drawbacks.
For silicon-based technology, where each VBEi is about 0.65 V when the device is operating in the active or saturated region, the necessary base-emitter voltage of the pair is 1.3 V.
Another drawback of the Darlington pair is its increased "saturation" voltage. The output transistor is not allowed to saturate (i.e. its base-collector junction must remain reverse-biased) because the first transistor, when saturated, establishes full (100%) parallel negative feedback between the collector and the base of the second transistor. Since collector-emitter voltage is equal to the sum of its own base-emitter voltage and the collector-emitter voltage of the first transistor, both positive quantities in normal operation, it always exceeds the base-emitter voltage. (In symbols,
, so 
always.) Thus the "saturation" voltage of a Darlington transistor is one VBE (about 0.65 V in silicon) higher than a single transistor saturation voltage, which is typically 0.1 - 0.2 V in silicon. For equal collector currents, this drawback translates to an increase in the dissipated power for the Darlington transistor over a single transistor. The increased low output level can cause troubles when TTL logic circuits are driven.
Another problem is a reduction in switching speed, because the first transistor cannot actively inhibit the base current of the second one, making the device slow to switch off. To alleviate this, the second transistor often has a resistor of a few hundred ohms connected between its base and emitter terminals. This resistor provides a low impedance discharge path for the charge accumulated on the base-emitter junction, allowing a faster transistor turn-off.
The Darlington pair has more phase shift at high frequencies than a single transistor and hence can more easily become unstable with negative feedback
(i.e., systems that use this configuration can have poor phase margin
due to the extra transistor delay).
Darlington pairs are available as integrated packages or can be made from two discrete transistors; Q1 (the left-hand transistor in the diagram) can be a low power type, but normally Q2 (on the right) will need to be high power. The maximum collector current IC(max) of the pair is that of Q2. A typical integrated power device is the 2N6282, which includes a switch-off resistor and has a current gain of 2400 at IC=10A.
A Darlington pair can be sensitive enough to respond to the current passed by skin contact even at safe voltages. Thus it can form the input stage of a touch-sensitive switch.
Electronics
Electronics is the branch of science, engineering and technology that deals with electrical circuits involving active electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and integrated circuits, and associated passive interconnection technologies...
, the Darlington transistor (often called a Darlington pair) is a compound structure consisting of two bipolar transistors (either integrated or separated devices) connected in such a way that the current amplified by the first transistor is amplified further by the second one. This configuration gives a much higher current
Electric current
Electric current is a flow of electric charge through a medium.This charge is typically carried by moving electrons in a conductor such as wire...
gain
Gain
In electronics, gain is a measure of the ability of a circuit to increase the power or amplitude of a signal from the input to the output. It is usually defined as the mean ratio of the signal output of a system to the signal input of the same system. It may also be defined on a logarithmic scale,...
than each transistor taken separately and, in the case of integrated devices, can take less space than two individual transistors because they can use a shared collector. Integrated Darlington pairs come packaged singly in transistor-like packages or as an array of devices (usually eight) in an integrated circuit
Integrated circuit
An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit is an electronic circuit manufactured by the patterned diffusion of trace elements into the surface of a thin substrate of semiconductor material...
.
The Darlington configuration was invented by Bell Laboratories engineer Sidney Darlington
Sidney Darlington
Sidney Darlington was an electrical engineer and inventor of a transistor configuration in 1953, the Darlington pair...
in 1953. He patent
Patent
A patent is a form of intellectual property. It consists of a set of exclusive rights granted by a sovereign state to an inventor or their assignee for a limited period of time in exchange for the public disclosure of an invention....
ed the idea of having two or three transistors on a single chip sharing a collector.
A similar configuration but with transistors of opposite type (NPN and PNP) is the Sziklai pair
Sziklai pair
In electronics, the Sziklai pair is a configuration of two bipolar transistors, similar to a Darlington pair. In contrast to the Darlington arrangement, the Sziklai pair has one NPN and one PNP transistor, and so it is sometimes called the "complementary Darlington"...
, sometimes called the "complementary Darlington."
Behaviour
A Darlington pair behaves like a single transistor with a high current gain (approximately the product of the gains of the two transistors). In fact, integrated devices have three leads (B, C and E), broadly equivalent to those of a standard transistor.A general relation between the compound current gain and the individual gains is given by:
If β1 and β2 are high enough (hundreds), this relation can be approximated with:
A typical modern device has a current gain of 1000 or more, so that only a small base current is needed to make the pair switch on. However, this high current gain comes with several drawbacks.
Disadvantages
One drawback is an approximate doubling of base-emitter voltage. Since there are two junctions between the base and emitter of the Darlington transistor, the equivalent base-emitter voltage is the sum of both base-emitter voltages:For silicon-based technology, where each VBEi is about 0.65 V when the device is operating in the active or saturated region, the necessary base-emitter voltage of the pair is 1.3 V.
Another drawback of the Darlington pair is its increased "saturation" voltage. The output transistor is not allowed to saturate (i.e. its base-collector junction must remain reverse-biased) because the first transistor, when saturated, establishes full (100%) parallel negative feedback between the collector and the base of the second transistor. Since collector-emitter voltage is equal to the sum of its own base-emitter voltage and the collector-emitter voltage of the first transistor, both positive quantities in normal operation, it always exceeds the base-emitter voltage. (In symbols,
, so always.) Thus the "saturation" voltage of a Darlington transistor is one VBE (about 0.65 V in silicon) higher than a single transistor saturation voltage, which is typically 0.1 - 0.2 V in silicon. For equal collector currents, this drawback translates to an increase in the dissipated power for the Darlington transistor over a single transistor. The increased low output level can cause troubles when TTL logic circuits are driven.Another problem is a reduction in switching speed, because the first transistor cannot actively inhibit the base current of the second one, making the device slow to switch off. To alleviate this, the second transistor often has a resistor of a few hundred ohms connected between its base and emitter terminals. This resistor provides a low impedance discharge path for the charge accumulated on the base-emitter junction, allowing a faster transistor turn-off.
The Darlington pair has more phase shift at high frequencies than a single transistor and hence can more easily become unstable with negative feedback
Negative feedback
Negative feedback occurs when the output of a system acts to oppose changes to the input of the system, with the result that the changes are attenuated. If the overall feedback of the system is negative, then the system will tend to be stable.- Overview :...
(i.e., systems that use this configuration can have poor phase margin
Phase margin
In electronic amplifiers, phase margin is the difference between the phase, measured in degrees, of an amplifier's output signal and 180°, as a function of frequency. The PM is taken as positive at frequencies below where the open-loop phase first crosses 180°, i.e. the signal becomes inverted,...
due to the extra transistor delay).
Darlington pairs are available as integrated packages or can be made from two discrete transistors; Q1 (the left-hand transistor in the diagram) can be a low power type, but normally Q2 (on the right) will need to be high power. The maximum collector current IC(max) of the pair is that of Q2. A typical integrated power device is the 2N6282, which includes a switch-off resistor and has a current gain of 2400 at IC=10A.
A Darlington pair can be sensitive enough to respond to the current passed by skin contact even at safe voltages. Thus it can form the input stage of a touch-sensitive switch.
External links
- Transistor and Darlington Pair as a Switch – Semiconductor signal translating devices. (ed., "Darlington Transistor")
- A Darlington Pair motor speed control circuit
- ECE 327: Procedures for Output Filtering Lab – Section 4 ("Power Amplifier") discusses Darlington pairs in the design of a BJT-based class-AB current driver in detail.