Debates over Americanization
Encyclopedia
Debates over Americanization
According to The Norton Anthology of American Literature, the term Americanization
was coined in the early 1900s and “referred to a concerted movement to turn immigrants into Americans, including classes, programs, and ceremonies focused on American speech, ideals, traditions, and customs, but it was also a broader term used in debates about national identity
and a person’s general fitness for citizenship
”.
The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of the different perspectives (debate) on Americanization from the literary viewpoint of six prominent figures of the early 1900s.
Historian Frederick Jackson Turner
In Frederick Jackson Turner
’s The Significance of the Frontier
, he establishes the frontier thesis
, which states that the frontier helped establish American identity and break away from European influence. In other words, westward expansion was a “steady movement away from the influence of Europe, a steady growth of independence on American lines”. What happens in the frontier is the creation of the American. Turner states that the wilderness
and man battle one another because they are both trying to “master” one another; however, in the end, the wilderness and man reach this equilibrium
with each other (they both end up adhering to one another’s conditions) which results in the creation of the America.
Arthur Redding writes in his article “Frontier Mythographies: Savagery and Civilization in Frederick Jackson Turner and John Ford
” that the language Turner uses to describe this battle between the wilderness and the man is “systematic”. The language is scientific and makes “Turner reveal himself as a rigorously Darwinian
thinker, as he applies the same systematic approach to explain the evolution of new social and historical species—the American—as Darwin applied to natural history: natural selection
and struggle for survival”. In other words, the wilderness and man mastering one another is described in a similar sense of “survival of the fittest
.” Therefore, the questions to ask would be is who will survive, the wilderness or man? Who is the stronger of the two? In the end, however, the wilderness and man make adjustments to their ways of living. While the wilderness has taught the man to survive, the man has taught the wilderness to be under his control.
Turner states that the greatness of the American frontier is that two key important values for America, tolerance
and individualism
, are able to thrive. He believed that “so long as free land exists, the opportunity for a competency exists, and economic power
secures political power
”. The greatness of the American frontier was that different political or religious beliefs could exist without violent conflict. In other words, because the frontier was so vast, it could contain people with various beliefs, and there would be no need for worry about conflict
unlike people in a confined space.
However, Turner emphasized that while tolerance and individualism are important and the vastness of the frontier allowed these values to thrive, a downside existed. He believed that these values caused government affairs to not be regulated. As a result, certain evils arose from this lack of accountability
. Some of these evils were inflated paper currency
and wildcat banking
. Inflated paper currency was basically the rise of prices, and wild-cat banking was “uncontrolled banking” and “the giving of nearly worthless currency backed by questionable security”. Without regulation, these evils would not be questioned, which was a danger for the success of the America.
The frontier eventually closes and at the end of his essay, Turner reminisces about what the frontier has done for America. Certain qualities such as strength, quickness of the “grasp of material things,” and freedom came from the frontier, which defined the American. Americans owe the greatness of the frontier to developing their freedom and strength.
President Theodore “Teddy” Roosevelt
Roosevelt's
books, American Ideals and The Strenuous Life
are both devoted to not only describing Americans, but Roosevelt also uses his books to describe how Americans should be. "There was scant room for the coward and the weakling in the ranks of the adventurous frontiersmen -- the pioneer
settlers who first broke up the wild prairie soil, who first hewed their way into the primeval forest, who guided their white-topped wagons across the endless leagues of Indian-haunted desolation, and explored every remote mountain-chain in the restless quest for metal wealth".
"This country cannot afford to have its sons less than men". Roosevelt was undoubtedly pro-assimilation
and expected that all immigrants should turn from their old customs and beliefs and devote themselves wholeheartedly into being American. "He must revere only our flag; not only must it come first, but no other flag should even come second". Roosevelt felt that the Western portion of the United States
needed to subdued and conquered in a war-like manner. This included the land, resources, as well as the Natives of the West
. "A record of endless feats of arms, of victory after victory in the ceaseless strife waged against wild man and wild nature".
Author, Cuban National, and Political Activist José Martí
José Martí
’s Our America challenges many the prevailing ideas on Americanization of the time such as the idea that there should be some American standard that all new citizens need to live up to, that people needed to leave behind the lives and customs they had in the old country and remake themselves anew in America. He calls out those that would shed their past in the name of progress stating “Those carpenters’ sons who are ashamed that their fathers are carpenters! Those born in America who are ashamed of the mother who reared them, because she wears an Indian apron, and who disown their sick mother, the scoundrels, abandoning her on her sick bed!”. The idea that Americans need not shed their past but rather embrace it comes up as a repeated theme throughout the essay.
The essay makes the point that to establish an American identity people need to break away from Europe
, from its history, its politics, and its culture. Instead, Martí urges Americans to instead to mine the rich history of the Americas. He says, “The history of America, from the Incas to the present must be taught in clear detail and to the letter, even if the archons of Greece
are overlooked. Our Greece must take priority over the Greece which is not ours”. Here Martí makes the point that for America to succeed it must use the knowledge and history that pertains to it and that European ideas were not formed in America and therefore do not take into account the realities of this American continent.
Martí feels that people should be proud of being American, and not in some jingoistic
or nationalistic
sense but in the sense of being proud of history of the land and the people that inhabit it. He feels that the struggles that the masses have gone through here on this continent makes America unique among nations, that the common struggle of such disparate people is unique. He writes, “Never in history have such advanced and united nations been forged in so short a time from such disorganized elements”. Here the point is made that while being a young country on a young continent America has overcome these obstacles and made itself a world power
.
Author and Political Activist Charles W. Chesnutt
Charles W. Chesnutt
wrote a literary review of William Hannibal Thomas’ The American Negro: What He Was, What He Is, and What He May Become. In his review, “A Defamer of His Race,” Chesnutt expresses his frustrations with men like Thomas; mulattos who refuse to claim their heritage and support it. Chesnutt is a mulatto
himself and although people perceived him to be white; he claimed his African American
heritage. Thomas on the other hand felt that he was clearly white and Chesnutt explains that “he [Thomas] has not had a single friend or well-wisher among the whole eight or ten millions of his own people”. Chesnutt continues on to explain how much he despises Thomas’s book by pointing out that,
the negro has suffered a great deal, in the public estimation, from loose and hasty generalization
s [like Thomas’ book] with reference to his intelligence, his morals, his physical characteristics, and his social efficiency. But not the worst things said about him by his most radical defamers, all put together, could surpass in untruthfulness and malignity the screed which this alleged reformer has put forth under his publisher’s imprint. Thomas was supposed to be assisting the African Americans in gaining respect amongst the white folk but instead he was focused on personal gain.
In an article about Chesnutt, “Neither Fish, Flesh, Nor Fowl: Race and Region in the Writings of Charles W. Chesnutt, Anne Fleischmann, explains a bit about Chesnutt. She explains his mulatto heritage as “not […] a tragic figure emblematic of racial strife but as a testimony to the possibility of racial hybridity”. Chesnutt “follows the call for racial uplift and ventures out into what to him is a cultural wilderness”. The entire article explains Chesnutt’s mulatto views and his influence via literature
on the African American culture. He clearly had reason to be upset with Thomas’ views.
During the time of Americanization, Chesnutt wanted all individuals regardless of race to be accepted in the new nation. Thomas made it even more difficult because his book is noted as a “review of the history of black Americans and an assessment of the challenges that faced them at the beginning of the twentieth century”. Basically, the main character explains that “African Americans will only achieve a desirable standard of living—in both economic and moral sense—through association with and emulation of Anglo-Saxon society”. It had a either be white or be doomed sort of message throughout the book. This contradicted everything Chesnutt was working towards and made it harder for Africans to rise up.
Anna Julia Cooper
Anna J. Cooper
has an essay, “One Phase of American Literature,” which includes an excerpt directed towards W. D. Howells. Howells wrote a book, An Imperative Duty which details the life of a young woman who is considered white until her Aunt explains that she is actually of African descent. The New York Times ran a review of Howell’s book, which questioned, “Has or has not Mr. Howells any sympathy with the colored race?”. The article continues explaining that Howells used every black American stereotype
he could find and incorporated it into the book. Overall, the article showed a clear disliking to the book.
Anna J. Cooper had similar emotions; she explains, “that it is an insult to humanity and a sin against God to publish any such sweeping generalizations of a race on such meager and superficial information”. In a very brief selection, Cooper clearly expresses her dislike for Howell and his book. Her anger is evident through the bashing of Howell for “giving only a half truth and […] a partisan half truth [at that]”. Her strong sense of frustration
can be understood in an article, “Tending to the Roots: Anna Julia Cooper’s Sociopolitical Thought and Activism,” by Kathy L. Glass. Glass explains that “[Cooper crosses] the boundaries of race and sex to court communities from which black women are traditionally excluded, or within which they are routinely marginalized”. Cooper had a tough time fighting for individuals of color, especially women, “African American not only had to deal with the oppressive white society but also oppression within their own racial group”. Howell was a member of the “white society” so he was her main oppressor but the point is, it is not fair for her life and culture to be interpreted in such a foul manner.
During Americanization, people were looking to be accepted into the white society. This is probably why Howell wrote his book. He wanted to depict an African American being accepted in the white society. Unfortunately, he did it all wrong. Howell took an idea about a culture and ran with it, unfortunately in the wrong direction. Cooper even expresses one of her main concerns being, “there is little point and no force of character about the beautiful and irresponsible young heroine”. Cooper was notably a woman with strong values and she fought for all people. It is obvious that Howell’s horrid depiction of a young African woman would seriously displease her.
Humanitarian and Political Activist (Laura) Jane Addams
In Twenty Years at Hull-House, Jane Addams
documented her belief that Americanization should include services available for all . Her focus was equality for American citizens and foreign immigrants into the United States, and she actively worked to achieve this goal. She originally planned to attend medical school
, but her father would not allow it. Instead, she attended Rockford Female Seminary and graduated in 1882. Addams became known for social reform, including housing and sanitation issues, factory inspection, rights of immigrants, women and children, pacifism
and the 8-hour day. Addams was Vice President of the National Woman Suffrage Association from 1911–1914, campaigned for presidential candidate Teddy Roosevelt in 1912, worked with the Peace Party, helped found and served as president (1919–1935) of the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom
, was a founding member of the American Civil Liberties Union
(ACLU), and in 1931 she was the first American woman to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize
.
In 1889, Addams co-founded Hull House
, a social settlement in Chicago
. In addition to shelter, services available at the settlement included food, education
, healthcare, and a variety of social activities. Addams based her support of Americanization on the belief that immigrants should embrace their new identity as an American, but should not leave behind their heritage. She reasoned that past experiences, family history
, and culture are all a part of who you are. We learn from who we are today and where we came from. Becoming Americanized did not mean reinventing yourself, but rather melding your history with your present and future. Addams suggested immigrants bridge relations between their European and American experiences. American history started long before America declared independence, and part of the Americanization process for early settlers was deciding what practices to retain from their old country, and which ones to adopt in the new. Addams supported the adage, “united we stand, divided we fall.” She believed that everyone had something to offer American society, and combining knowledge with skills would create a more united America. She was a proponent for preserving history by recognizing how the past influences progress.
According to The Norton Anthology of American Literature, the term Americanization
Americanization
Americanization is the influence of the United States on the popular culture, technology, business practices, or political techniques of other countries. The term has been used since at least 1907. Inside the U.S...
was coined in the early 1900s and “referred to a concerted movement to turn immigrants into Americans, including classes, programs, and ceremonies focused on American speech, ideals, traditions, and customs, but it was also a broader term used in debates about national identity
National identity
National identity is the person's identity and sense of belonging to one state or to one nation, a feeling one shares with a group of people, regardless of one's citizenship status....
and a person’s general fitness for citizenship
Citizenship
Citizenship is the state of being a citizen of a particular social, political, national, or human resource community. Citizenship status, under social contract theory, carries with it both rights and responsibilities...
”.
The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of the different perspectives (debate) on Americanization from the literary viewpoint of six prominent figures of the early 1900s.
Historian Frederick Jackson Turner
In Frederick Jackson Turner
Frederick Jackson Turner
Frederick Jackson Turner was an American historian in the early 20th century. He is best known for his essay "The Significance of the Frontier in American History", whose ideas are referred to as the Frontier Thesis. He is also known for his theories of geographical sectionalism...
’s The Significance of the Frontier
The Significance of the Frontier in American History
"The Significance of the Frontier in American History" is a seminal essay by the American historian Frederick Jackson Turner which advanced the Frontier Thesis of American history...
, he establishes the frontier thesis
Frontier Thesis
The Frontier Thesis, also referred to as the Turner Thesis, is the argument advanced by historian Frederick Jackson Turner in 1893 that the origin of the distinctive egalitarian, democratic, aggressive, and innovative features of the American character has been the American frontier experience...
, which states that the frontier helped establish American identity and break away from European influence. In other words, westward expansion was a “steady movement away from the influence of Europe, a steady growth of independence on American lines”. What happens in the frontier is the creation of the American. Turner states that the wilderness
Wilderness
Wilderness or wildland is a natural environment on Earth that has not been significantly modified by human activity. It may also be defined as: "The most intact, undisturbed wild natural areas left on our planet—those last truly wild places that humans do not control and have not developed with...
and man battle one another because they are both trying to “master” one another; however, in the end, the wilderness and man reach this equilibrium
Equilibrium
Equilibrium is the condition of a system in which competing influences are balanced. The word may refer to:-Biology:* Equilibrioception, the sense of a balance present in human beings and other animals...
with each other (they both end up adhering to one another’s conditions) which results in the creation of the America.
Arthur Redding writes in his article “Frontier Mythographies: Savagery and Civilization in Frederick Jackson Turner and John Ford
John Ford
John Ford was an American film director. He was famous for both his westerns such as Stagecoach, The Searchers, and The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance, and adaptations of such classic 20th-century American novels as The Grapes of Wrath...
” that the language Turner uses to describe this battle between the wilderness and the man is “systematic”. The language is scientific and makes “Turner reveal himself as a rigorously Darwinian
Darwinism
Darwinism is a set of movements and concepts related to ideas of transmutation of species or of evolution, including some ideas with no connection to the work of Charles Darwin....
thinker, as he applies the same systematic approach to explain the evolution of new social and historical species—the American—as Darwin applied to natural history: natural selection
Natural selection
Natural selection is the nonrandom process by which biologic traits become either more or less common in a population as a function of differential reproduction of their bearers. It is a key mechanism of evolution....
and struggle for survival”. In other words, the wilderness and man mastering one another is described in a similar sense of “survival of the fittest
Survival of the fittest
"Survival of the fittest" is a phrase originating in evolutionary theory, as an alternative description of Natural selection. The phrase is today commonly used in contexts that are incompatible with the original meaning as intended by its first two proponents: British polymath philosopher Herbert...
.” Therefore, the questions to ask would be is who will survive, the wilderness or man? Who is the stronger of the two? In the end, however, the wilderness and man make adjustments to their ways of living. While the wilderness has taught the man to survive, the man has taught the wilderness to be under his control.
Turner states that the greatness of the American frontier is that two key important values for America, tolerance
Toleration
Toleration is "the practice of deliberately allowing or permitting a thing of which one disapproves. One can meaningfully speak of tolerating, ie of allowing or permitting, only if one is in a position to disallow”. It has also been defined as "to bear or endure" or "to nourish, sustain or preserve"...
and individualism
Individualism
Individualism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that stresses "the moral worth of the individual". Individualists promote the exercise of one's goals and desires and so value independence and self-reliance while opposing most external interference upon one's own...
, are able to thrive. He believed that “so long as free land exists, the opportunity for a competency exists, and economic power
Economic power
There is no agreed-upon definition of power in economics. At least five definitions of power have been used:*Purchasing power, i.e., the ability of any amount of money to buy goods and services. Those with more assets, or, more correctly, net worth, have more power of this sort...
secures political power
Political power
Political power is a type of power held by a group in a society which allows administration of some or all of public resources, including labour, and wealth. There are many ways to obtain possession of such power. At the nation-state level political legitimacy for political power is held by the...
”. The greatness of the American frontier was that different political or religious beliefs could exist without violent conflict. In other words, because the frontier was so vast, it could contain people with various beliefs, and there would be no need for worry about conflict
Group conflict
Group conflict, or hostilities between different groups, is a pervasive feature common to all levels of social organization .. Although group conflict is one of the most complex phenomena studied by social scientists, the history of the human race evidences a series of group-level conflicts that...
unlike people in a confined space.
However, Turner emphasized that while tolerance and individualism are important and the vastness of the frontier allowed these values to thrive, a downside existed. He believed that these values caused government affairs to not be regulated. As a result, certain evils arose from this lack of accountability
Accountability
Accountability is a concept in ethics and governance with several meanings. It is often used synonymously with such concepts as responsibility, answerability, blameworthiness, liability, and other terms associated with the expectation of account-giving...
. Some of these evils were inflated paper currency
Currency
In economics, currency refers to a generally accepted medium of exchange. These are usually the coins and banknotes of a particular government, which comprise the physical aspects of a nation's money supply...
and wildcat banking
Wildcat banking
Wildcat banking refers to the unusual practices of banks chartered under state law during the periods of non-federally regulated state banking between 1816 and 1863 in the United States, also known as the Free Banking Era...
. Inflated paper currency was basically the rise of prices, and wild-cat banking was “uncontrolled banking” and “the giving of nearly worthless currency backed by questionable security”. Without regulation, these evils would not be questioned, which was a danger for the success of the America.
The frontier eventually closes and at the end of his essay, Turner reminisces about what the frontier has done for America. Certain qualities such as strength, quickness of the “grasp of material things,” and freedom came from the frontier, which defined the American. Americans owe the greatness of the frontier to developing their freedom and strength.
President Theodore “Teddy” Roosevelt
Roosevelt's
Theodore Roosevelt
Theodore "Teddy" Roosevelt was the 26th President of the United States . He is noted for his exuberant personality, range of interests and achievements, and his leadership of the Progressive Movement, as well as his "cowboy" persona and robust masculinity...
books, American Ideals and The Strenuous Life
The Strenuous Life
"The Strenuous Life" is the name of a speech given by Theodore Roosevelt in Chicago, Illinois on April 10, 1899. Based upon his personal experiences, he argued that strenuous effort and overcoming hardship were ideals to be embraced by Americans for the betterment of the nation and the world in the...
are both devoted to not only describing Americans, but Roosevelt also uses his books to describe how Americans should be. "There was scant room for the coward and the weakling in the ranks of the adventurous frontiersmen -- the pioneer
American pioneer
American pioneers are any of the people in American history who migrated west to join in settling and developing new areas. The term especially refers to those who were going to settle any territory which had previously not been settled or developed by European or American society, although the...
settlers who first broke up the wild prairie soil, who first hewed their way into the primeval forest, who guided their white-topped wagons across the endless leagues of Indian-haunted desolation, and explored every remote mountain-chain in the restless quest for metal wealth".
"This country cannot afford to have its sons less than men". Roosevelt was undoubtedly pro-assimilation
Cultural assimilation
Cultural assimilation is a socio-political response to demographic multi-ethnicity that supports or promotes the assimilation of ethnic minorities into the dominant culture. The term assimilation is often used with regard to immigrants and various ethnic groups who have settled in a new land. New...
and expected that all immigrants should turn from their old customs and beliefs and devote themselves wholeheartedly into being American. "He must revere only our flag; not only must it come first, but no other flag should even come second". Roosevelt felt that the Western portion of the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
needed to subdued and conquered in a war-like manner. This included the land, resources, as well as the Natives of the West
Native Americans in the United States
Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples in North America within the boundaries of the present-day continental United States, parts of Alaska, and the island state of Hawaii. They are composed of numerous, distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of which survive as...
. "A record of endless feats of arms, of victory after victory in the ceaseless strife waged against wild man and wild nature".
Author, Cuban National, and Political Activist José Martí
José Martí
José Martí
José Julián Martí Pérez was a Cuban national hero and an important figure in Latin American literature. In his short life he was a poet, an essayist, a journalist, a revolutionary philosopher, a translator, a professor, a publisher, and a political theorist. He was also a part of the Cuban...
’s Our America challenges many the prevailing ideas on Americanization of the time such as the idea that there should be some American standard that all new citizens need to live up to, that people needed to leave behind the lives and customs they had in the old country and remake themselves anew in America. He calls out those that would shed their past in the name of progress stating “Those carpenters’ sons who are ashamed that their fathers are carpenters! Those born in America who are ashamed of the mother who reared them, because she wears an Indian apron, and who disown their sick mother, the scoundrels, abandoning her on her sick bed!”. The idea that Americans need not shed their past but rather embrace it comes up as a repeated theme throughout the essay.
The essay makes the point that to establish an American identity people need to break away from Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
, from its history, its politics, and its culture. Instead, Martí urges Americans to instead to mine the rich history of the Americas. He says, “The history of America, from the Incas to the present must be taught in clear detail and to the letter, even if the archons of Greece
Greece
Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....
are overlooked. Our Greece must take priority over the Greece which is not ours”. Here Martí makes the point that for America to succeed it must use the knowledge and history that pertains to it and that European ideas were not formed in America and therefore do not take into account the realities of this American continent.
Martí feels that people should be proud of being American, and not in some jingoistic
Jingoism
Jingoism is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary as extreme patriotism in the form of aggressive foreign policy. In practice, it is a country's advocation of the use of threats or actual force against other countries in order to safeguard what it perceives as its national interests...
or nationalistic
Nationalism
Nationalism is a political ideology that involves a strong identification of a group of individuals with a political entity defined in national terms, i.e. a nation. In the 'modernist' image of the nation, it is nationalism that creates national identity. There are various definitions for what...
sense but in the sense of being proud of history of the land and the people that inhabit it. He feels that the struggles that the masses have gone through here on this continent makes America unique among nations, that the common struggle of such disparate people is unique. He writes, “Never in history have such advanced and united nations been forged in so short a time from such disorganized elements”. Here the point is made that while being a young country on a young continent America has overcome these obstacles and made itself a world power
World Power
World Power is the debut album of German Eurodance project Snap!, released in 1990 on Bookmark/Ariola Records. The album received generally positive reviews from music critics, as the project's musical style and its vocalists, Turbo B and Penny "Tiny" Ford, were well-received...
.
Author and Political Activist Charles W. Chesnutt
Charles W. Chesnutt
Charles W. Chesnutt
Charles Waddell Chesnutt was an American author, essayist, political activist and lawyer, best known for his novels and short stories exploring complex issues of racial and social identity in the post-Civil War South, where the legacy of slavery and interracial relations had resulted in many free...
wrote a literary review of William Hannibal Thomas’ The American Negro: What He Was, What He Is, and What He May Become. In his review, “A Defamer of His Race,” Chesnutt expresses his frustrations with men like Thomas; mulattos who refuse to claim their heritage and support it. Chesnutt is a mulatto
Mulatto
Mulatto denotes a person with one white parent and one black parent, or more broadly, a person of mixed black and white ancestry. Contemporary usage of the term varies greatly, and the broader sense of the term makes its application rather subjective, as not all people of mixed white and black...
himself and although people perceived him to be white; he claimed his African American
African American
African Americans are citizens or residents of the United States who have at least partial ancestry from any of the native populations of Sub-Saharan Africa and are the direct descendants of enslaved Africans within the boundaries of the present United States...
heritage. Thomas on the other hand felt that he was clearly white and Chesnutt explains that “he [Thomas] has not had a single friend or well-wisher among the whole eight or ten millions of his own people”. Chesnutt continues on to explain how much he despises Thomas’s book by pointing out that,
the negro has suffered a great deal, in the public estimation, from loose and hasty generalization
Generalization
A generalization of a concept is an extension of the concept to less-specific criteria. It is a foundational element of logic and human reasoning. Generalizations posit the existence of a domain or set of elements, as well as one or more common characteristics shared by those elements. As such, it...
s [like Thomas’ book] with reference to his intelligence, his morals, his physical characteristics, and his social efficiency. But not the worst things said about him by his most radical defamers, all put together, could surpass in untruthfulness and malignity the screed which this alleged reformer has put forth under his publisher’s imprint. Thomas was supposed to be assisting the African Americans in gaining respect amongst the white folk but instead he was focused on personal gain.
In an article about Chesnutt, “Neither Fish, Flesh, Nor Fowl: Race and Region in the Writings of Charles W. Chesnutt, Anne Fleischmann, explains a bit about Chesnutt. She explains his mulatto heritage as “not […] a tragic figure emblematic of racial strife but as a testimony to the possibility of racial hybridity”. Chesnutt “follows the call for racial uplift and ventures out into what to him is a cultural wilderness”. The entire article explains Chesnutt’s mulatto views and his influence via literature
Literature
Literature is the art of written works, and is not bound to published sources...
on the African American culture. He clearly had reason to be upset with Thomas’ views.
During the time of Americanization, Chesnutt wanted all individuals regardless of race to be accepted in the new nation. Thomas made it even more difficult because his book is noted as a “review of the history of black Americans and an assessment of the challenges that faced them at the beginning of the twentieth century”. Basically, the main character explains that “African Americans will only achieve a desirable standard of living—in both economic and moral sense—through association with and emulation of Anglo-Saxon society”. It had a either be white or be doomed sort of message throughout the book. This contradicted everything Chesnutt was working towards and made it harder for Africans to rise up.
Anna Julia Cooper
Anna J. Cooper
Anna J. Cooper
Anna Julia Haywood Cooper was an author, educator, speaker and one of the most prominent African American scholars in United States history. Upon receiving her Ph.D in history from the University of Paris-Sorbonne in 1924, Cooper became the fourth African American woman to earn a doctoral degree...
has an essay, “One Phase of American Literature,” which includes an excerpt directed towards W. D. Howells. Howells wrote a book, An Imperative Duty which details the life of a young woman who is considered white until her Aunt explains that she is actually of African descent. The New York Times ran a review of Howell’s book, which questioned, “Has or has not Mr. Howells any sympathy with the colored race?”. The article continues explaining that Howells used every black American stereotype
Stereotype
A stereotype is a popular belief about specific social groups or types of individuals. The concepts of "stereotype" and "prejudice" are often confused with many other different meanings...
he could find and incorporated it into the book. Overall, the article showed a clear disliking to the book.
Anna J. Cooper had similar emotions; she explains, “that it is an insult to humanity and a sin against God to publish any such sweeping generalizations of a race on such meager and superficial information”. In a very brief selection, Cooper clearly expresses her dislike for Howell and his book. Her anger is evident through the bashing of Howell for “giving only a half truth and […] a partisan half truth [at that]”. Her strong sense of frustration
Frustration
This article concerns the field of psychology. The term frustration does, however, also concern physics. In this context, the term is treated in a different article, geometric frustration....
can be understood in an article, “Tending to the Roots: Anna Julia Cooper’s Sociopolitical Thought and Activism,” by Kathy L. Glass. Glass explains that “[Cooper crosses] the boundaries of race and sex to court communities from which black women are traditionally excluded, or within which they are routinely marginalized”. Cooper had a tough time fighting for individuals of color, especially women, “African American not only had to deal with the oppressive white society but also oppression within their own racial group”. Howell was a member of the “white society” so he was her main oppressor but the point is, it is not fair for her life and culture to be interpreted in such a foul manner.
During Americanization, people were looking to be accepted into the white society. This is probably why Howell wrote his book. He wanted to depict an African American being accepted in the white society. Unfortunately, he did it all wrong. Howell took an idea about a culture and ran with it, unfortunately in the wrong direction. Cooper even expresses one of her main concerns being, “there is little point and no force of character about the beautiful and irresponsible young heroine”. Cooper was notably a woman with strong values and she fought for all people. It is obvious that Howell’s horrid depiction of a young African woman would seriously displease her.
Humanitarian and Political Activist (Laura) Jane Addams
In Twenty Years at Hull-House, Jane Addams
Jane Addams
Jane Addams was a pioneer settlement worker, founder of Hull House in Chicago, public philosopher, sociologist, author, and leader in woman suffrage and world peace...
documented her belief that Americanization should include services available for all . Her focus was equality for American citizens and foreign immigrants into the United States, and she actively worked to achieve this goal. She originally planned to attend medical school
Medical school
A medical school is a tertiary educational institution—or part of such an institution—that teaches medicine. Degree programs offered at medical schools often include Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine, Bachelor/Doctor of Medicine, Doctor of Philosophy, master's degree, or other post-secondary...
, but her father would not allow it. Instead, she attended Rockford Female Seminary and graduated in 1882. Addams became known for social reform, including housing and sanitation issues, factory inspection, rights of immigrants, women and children, pacifism
Pacifism
Pacifism is the opposition to war and violence. The term "pacifism" was coined by the French peace campaignerÉmile Arnaud and adopted by other peace activists at the tenth Universal Peace Congress inGlasgow in 1901.- Definition :...
and the 8-hour day. Addams was Vice President of the National Woman Suffrage Association from 1911–1914, campaigned for presidential candidate Teddy Roosevelt in 1912, worked with the Peace Party, helped found and served as president (1919–1935) of the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom
Women's International League for Peace and Freedom
The Women's International League for Peace and Freedom was established in the United States in January 1915 as the Woman's Peace Party...
, was a founding member of the American Civil Liberties Union
American Civil Liberties Union
The American Civil Liberties Union is a U.S. non-profit organization whose stated mission is "to defend and preserve the individual rights and liberties guaranteed to every person in this country by the Constitution and laws of the United States." It works through litigation, legislation, and...
(ACLU), and in 1931 she was the first American woman to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize
Nobel Peace Prize
The Nobel Peace Prize is one of the five Nobel Prizes bequeathed by the Swedish industrialist and inventor Alfred Nobel.-Background:According to Nobel's will, the Peace Prize shall be awarded to the person who...
.
In 1889, Addams co-founded Hull House
Hull House
Hull House is a settlement house in the United States that was co-founded in 1889 by Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr. Located in the Near West Side of , Hull House opened its doors to the recently arrived European immigrants. By 1911, Hull House had grown to 13 buildings. In 1912 the Hull...
, a social settlement in Chicago
Chicago
Chicago is the largest city in the US state of Illinois. With nearly 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the Midwestern United States and the third most populous in the US, after New York City and Los Angeles...
. In addition to shelter, services available at the settlement included food, education
Education
Education in its broadest, general sense is the means through which the aims and habits of a group of people lives on from one generation to the next. Generally, it occurs through any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts...
, healthcare, and a variety of social activities. Addams based her support of Americanization on the belief that immigrants should embrace their new identity as an American, but should not leave behind their heritage. She reasoned that past experiences, family history
Family history
Family history is the systematic narrative and research of past events relating to a specific family, or specific families.- Introduction :...
, and culture are all a part of who you are. We learn from who we are today and where we came from. Becoming Americanized did not mean reinventing yourself, but rather melding your history with your present and future. Addams suggested immigrants bridge relations between their European and American experiences. American history started long before America declared independence, and part of the Americanization process for early settlers was deciding what practices to retain from their old country, and which ones to adopt in the new. Addams supported the adage, “united we stand, divided we fall.” She believed that everyone had something to offer American society, and combining knowledge with skills would create a more united America. She was a proponent for preserving history by recognizing how the past influences progress.