Defaka language
Encyclopedia
The Defaka language is an Ijoid
branch of the Niger–Congo languages
, spoken in Nigeria
. It is an endangered language
.
Ethnically, the Defaka are distinct from the Nkoroo
, but they have assimilated to Nkoroo culture to such a degree that their language seems to be the only sign of a distinct Defaka identity. Use of the Defaka language however is quickly receding in favour of the language of the Nkoroo. Nowadays, most Defaka speakers are elderly people, and even among these, Defaka is rarely spoken — the total number of Defaka speakers is at most 200 nowadays (SIL/Ethnologue 15th ed.). The decrease in use of Defaka is stronger in Nkoroo town than in the Iwoma area. All children grow up speaking Nkoroo
(an Ijo language
) as a first language. The next most used language among the Defaka is Igbo
, owing to the political influence of the Opobo
since the days of the Oil Rivers Trade. Igbo has been a language of instruction in many schools in the region and still functions as a regional trade language
.
The Defaka language is related to the Ijo
languages, showing quite a lot of lexical similarities, some shared regular sound correspondences and some grammatical similarities with proto-Ijo. While some of the lexical similarities can be attributed to borrowing (as Defaka has been in close contact with Ijo for more than 300 years), especially the sound correspondences and the grammatical similarities point to a (somewhat distant) genetic relationship. For example, both languages have a subject–object–verb basic word order, which is otherwise extremely rare in the Niger–Congo language family, being found only in the Mande
and Dogon
branches.
Also, Defaka has a sex-gender
system distinguishing between masculine, feminine, and neuter 3rd-person singular pronouns; this is once again a rarity among south-central Niger–Congo languages other than Ijoid and Defaka.
These similarities have led to the inclusion of Defaka in the Ijoid
branch of Niger–Congo
. Within Ijoid, Defaka constitutes a branch distinct from the main group of Ijoid languages, Ijo
.
, and . On long vowels and diphthongs, as well as disyllabic words, and contours occur. In addition, there is a downstep that may appear between high tones, and which is the remnant of an elided low tone. However, Shryock et al. were not able to measure significant differences in the pitch traces of , , and –downstep–, all of which have a falling pitch, suggesting that there may be fewer distinctive word tones than the combinations of syllable tones would suggest. However, these all clearly contrast with level-pitched and rising-pitched .
has collapsed in Defaka, as it has in Nkọrọọ. There are seven oral vowels, /i ɪ e a ɔ o u/, though /e/ and /ɔ/ are uncommon. There are five nasal vowels, /ĩ ẽ ã õ ũ/. All may occur long. Long vowels are at least twice as long as short vowels.
Most voiceless obstruent
s are tenuis
. However, /k͡p/ has a slightly negative voice onset time
. That is, voicing commences somewhat before the consonant is released, as in English "voiced" stops such as b. This is typical of labial-velar stops. /ɡ͡b/, on the other hand, is fully voiced, as are the other voiced obstruents. Shryock et al. analyze the prenasalized stops [mb nd ŋɡ ŋɡ͡b] as consonant cluster
s with /m/. [d͡ʒ] varies with [z], with some speakers using one, some the other, and some either, depending on the word.
/j/ and /w/ may be nasalized before nasal vowels.
The velar plosives /k/ & /ɡ/ may be lenited
to /ɣ/ or /x/ between vowels.
The tap /ɾ/ is pronounced as an approximant, [ɹ], by some speakers. It only occurs between vowels and at the ends of words.
Ijoid languages
The Ijoid languages are spoken by the Ịjọ and Defaka peoples of the Niger Delta, who number about ten million. The most populous language by far is Izon, with about a million speakers, followed by Okrike-Kalabari with over a half million. The family is generally divided in two branches, Ịjọ and...
branch of the Niger–Congo languages
Niger–Congo languages
The Niger–Congo languages constitute one of the world's major language families, and Africa's largest in terms of geographical area, number of speakers, and number of distinct languages. They may constitute the world's largest language family in terms of distinct languages, although this question...
, spoken in Nigeria
Nigeria
Nigeria , officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federal constitutional republic comprising 36 states and its Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. The country is located in West Africa and shares land borders with the Republic of Benin in the west, Chad and Cameroon in the east, and Niger in...
. It is an endangered language
Endangered language
An endangered language is a language that is at risk of falling out of use. If it loses all its native speakers, it becomes a dead language. If eventually no one speaks the language at all it becomes an "extinct language"....
.
Ethnically, the Defaka are distinct from the Nkoroo
Nkoroo
Nkoroo is a town in the Bonny territory of Rivers State, Nigeria. It is the home of the Nkoroo people and the Nkoroo language....
, but they have assimilated to Nkoroo culture to such a degree that their language seems to be the only sign of a distinct Defaka identity. Use of the Defaka language however is quickly receding in favour of the language of the Nkoroo. Nowadays, most Defaka speakers are elderly people, and even among these, Defaka is rarely spoken — the total number of Defaka speakers is at most 200 nowadays (SIL/Ethnologue 15th ed.). The decrease in use of Defaka is stronger in Nkoroo town than in the Iwoma area. All children grow up speaking Nkoroo
Nkoroo language
Nkọrọọ is a Niger–Congo language spoken by about 4500 ethnic Nkọrọọ in Rivers State, Nigeria....
(an Ijo language
Ijo languages
Ijaw, also spelled Ịjọ, is the main subgroup of the Ijoid group of Niger–Congo languages. Ijaw languages are spoken in southern Nigeria by the Ijaw people....
) as a first language. The next most used language among the Defaka is Igbo
Igbo language
Igbo , or Igbo proper, is a native language of the Igbo people, an ethnic group primarily located in southeastern Nigeria. There are approximately 20 million speakers that are mostly in Nigeria and are primarily of Igbo descent. Igbo is a national language of Nigeria. It is written in the Latin...
, owing to the political influence of the Opobo
Opobo
Opobo is a traditional state in southern Nigeria. The state was founded in 1870.A part of the traditional state is now Ikot-Abasi in Akwa Ibom State.-History:...
since the days of the Oil Rivers Trade. Igbo has been a language of instruction in many schools in the region and still functions as a regional trade language
Lingua franca
A lingua franca is a language systematically used to make communication possible between people not sharing a mother tongue, in particular when it is a third language, distinct from both mother tongues.-Characteristics:"Lingua franca" is a functionally defined term, independent of the linguistic...
.
The Defaka language is related to the Ijo
Ijo languages
Ijaw, also spelled Ịjọ, is the main subgroup of the Ijoid group of Niger–Congo languages. Ijaw languages are spoken in southern Nigeria by the Ijaw people....
languages, showing quite a lot of lexical similarities, some shared regular sound correspondences and some grammatical similarities with proto-Ijo. While some of the lexical similarities can be attributed to borrowing (as Defaka has been in close contact with Ijo for more than 300 years), especially the sound correspondences and the grammatical similarities point to a (somewhat distant) genetic relationship. For example, both languages have a subject–object–verb basic word order, which is otherwise extremely rare in the Niger–Congo language family, being found only in the Mande
Mande languages
The Mande languages are spoken in several countries in West Africa by the Mandé people and include Mandinka, Soninke, Bambara, Bissa, Dioula, Kagoro, Bozo, Mende, Susu, Yacouba, Vai, and Ligbi...
and Dogon
Dogon languages
The Dogon languages are spoken by the Dogon of Mali. There are about 600,000 speakers of a dozen languages. They are tonal languages, most like Dogul having two tones, some like Donno So having three....
branches.
- a ebere ko̘ a okuna b̘ááma (the dog SUBJECT the fowl kill:PAST) The dog killed the fowl (Defaka)
- obiri b̘é o̘b̘ó̘kō̘ b̘é b̘ám̄ (dog the fowl the kill:PAST) The dog killed the fowl (I̘jo̘, Kalab̘ari̘ dialect)
Also, Defaka has a sex-gender
Grammatical gender
Grammatical gender is defined linguistically as a system of classes of nouns which trigger specific types of inflections in associated words, such as adjectives, verbs and others. For a system of noun classes to be a gender system, every noun must belong to one of the classes and there should be...
system distinguishing between masculine, feminine, and neuter 3rd-person singular pronouns; this is once again a rarity among south-central Niger–Congo languages other than Ijoid and Defaka.
These similarities have led to the inclusion of Defaka in the Ijoid
Ijoid languages
The Ijoid languages are spoken by the Ịjọ and Defaka peoples of the Niger Delta, who number about ten million. The most populous language by far is Izon, with about a million speakers, followed by Okrike-Kalabari with over a half million. The family is generally divided in two branches, Ịjọ and...
branch of Niger–Congo
Niger–Congo languages
The Niger–Congo languages constitute one of the world's major language families, and Africa's largest in terms of geographical area, number of speakers, and number of distinct languages. They may constitute the world's largest language family in terms of distinct languages, although this question...
. Within Ijoid, Defaka constitutes a branch distinct from the main group of Ijoid languages, Ijo
Ijo languages
Ijaw, also spelled Ịjọ, is the main subgroup of the Ijoid group of Niger–Congo languages. Ijaw languages are spoken in southern Nigeria by the Ijaw people....
.
Phonology
Nearly all Defaka are bilingual in Nkọrọọ, and the phonology appears to be the same as that language.Tone
Defaka has two tonesTone (linguistics)
Tone is the use of pitch in language to distinguish lexical or grammatical meaning—that is, to distinguish or inflect words. All verbal languages use pitch to express emotional and other paralinguistic information, and to convey emphasis, contrast, and other such features in what is called...
, and . On long vowels and diphthongs, as well as disyllabic words, and contours occur. In addition, there is a downstep that may appear between high tones, and which is the remnant of an elided low tone. However, Shryock et al. were not able to measure significant differences in the pitch traces of , , and –downstep–, all of which have a falling pitch, suggesting that there may be fewer distinctive word tones than the combinations of syllable tones would suggest. However, these all clearly contrast with level-pitched and rising-pitched .
Vowels
The Ijoid vowel-harmonyVowel harmony
Vowel harmony is a type of long-distance assimilatory phonological process involving vowels that occurs in some languages. In languages with vowel harmony, there are constraints on which vowels may be found near each other....
has collapsed in Defaka, as it has in Nkọrọọ. There are seven oral vowels, /i ɪ e a ɔ o u/, though /e/ and /ɔ/ are uncommon. There are five nasal vowels, /ĩ ẽ ã õ ũ/. All may occur long. Long vowels are at least twice as long as short vowels.
Consonants
| Labial | Alveolar | Postalveolar ~ palatal | Velar | Labial velar |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m | n | (ŋ) | (ŋ͡m) | |
| Implosive | ɓ | ||||
| Plosive | p b | t d | k ɡ | k͡p ɡ͡b | |
| Affricate | d͡ʒ ~ z | ||||
| Fricative | f v | s ~ ʃ | |||
| Lateral approximant |
l | ||||
| Tap ~ central approximant |
ɾ ~ ɹ | j | w |
Most voiceless obstruent
Obstruent
An obstruent is a consonant sound formed by obstructing airflow, causing increased air pressure in the vocal tract, such as [k], [d͡ʒ] and [f]. In phonetics, articulation may be divided into two large classes: obstruents and sonorants....
s are tenuis
Tenuis consonant
In linguistics, a tenuis consonant is a stop or affricate which is unvoiced, unaspirated, and unglottalized. That is, it has a "plain" phonation like , with a voice onset time close to zero, as in Spanish p, t, ch, k, or as in English p, t, k after s .In transcription, tenuis consonants are not...
. However, /k͡p/ has a slightly negative voice onset time
Voice onset time
In phonetics, voice onset time, commonly abbreviated VOT, is a feature of the production of stop consonants. It is defined as the length of time that passes between when a stop consonant is released and when voicing, the vibration of the vocal folds, or, according to the authors, periodicity begins...
. That is, voicing commences somewhat before the consonant is released, as in English "voiced" stops such as b. This is typical of labial-velar stops. /ɡ͡b/, on the other hand, is fully voiced, as are the other voiced obstruents. Shryock et al. analyze the prenasalized stops [mb nd ŋɡ ŋɡ͡b] as consonant cluster
Consonant cluster
In linguistics, a consonant cluster is a group of consonants which have no intervening vowel. In English, for example, the groups and are consonant clusters in the word splits....
s with /m/. [d͡ʒ] varies with [z], with some speakers using one, some the other, and some either, depending on the word.
/j/ and /w/ may be nasalized before nasal vowels.
The velar plosives /k/ & /ɡ/ may be lenited
Lenition
In linguistics, lenition is a kind of sound change that alters consonants, making them "weaker" in some way. The word lenition itself means "softening" or "weakening" . Lenition can happen both synchronically and diachronically...
to /ɣ/ or /x/ between vowels.
The tap /ɾ/ is pronounced as an approximant, [ɹ], by some speakers. It only occurs between vowels and at the ends of words.
External links
- Defaka at UNESCO
- Defaka word lists and recordings at The UCLA Phonetics Lab.
- Defaka targeted by a proposal to document endangered languages.
- Defaka and Nkoroo a project to document Defaka and Nkoroo