Diarchy
Encyclopedia
Diarchy from the Greek δι- "twice" and αρχια, "rule", is a form of government in which two individuals, the diarchs, are the heads of state
. In most diarchies, the diarchs hold their position for life and pass the responsibilities and power of the position to their children or family when they die.
Diarchy is one of the oldest forms of government. Diarchies are known from ancient Sparta
, Rome
, Carthage
as well as from Germanic and Dacian tribes. Several ancient Polynesian societies exhibited a diarchic political structure as well. Ranks in the Inca Empire
were structured in moieties, with two occupants of each rank, but with different prestige, one hanan (upper) and one hurin (lower). In modern usage diarchy means a system of dual rule, whether this be of a government or of an organization. Such 'diarchies' are not hereditary.
Modern examples of diarchies are the Principality of Andorra, whose heads of state are the President of France and the Bishop of Urgell, and the Kingdom of Swaziland, where the joint heads of state are the king and his mother.
Andorra
Andorra is a co-principality. The Diarchs are the President of France
and the Bishop of Urgell. The current co-princes are Nicolas Sarkozy
and Joan Enric Vives Sicília
respectively.
Swaziland
The Kingdom of Swaziland is a diarchy in which the king (Ngwenyama) rules in conjunction with his mother the queen mother (Indlovukazi). In practice however, most power is vested in the king, though it is often argued that the giving of authority wholesale to the royal male in this way is a neo-traditionalistic as opposed to truly traditional custom.
was ruled by two consuls, elected each year and each holding a veto power over the other's actions.
. However, the Grand Dukes remained superior.
A slightly different system developed for a brief period after Vytautas became Grand Duke, where nominally Vytautas ruled together with Jogaila
, who took the title of aukščiausiasis kunigaikštis (Supreme Duke), but he has not once used the title to take any action, and in general the powers invested in the title were not clearly stated in any documents, besides the Pact of Horodlo, which guaranteed that Jogaila would have to approve the selection of a Lithuanian Grand Duke. The title was not used by any other king of Poland after Jogaila.
in ancient Greece was ruled by two kings who could veto one anothers actions, in addition Sparta had group of a officials known as Ephors and a council of elders.
and the military gyula
. The Khazars were ruled by the spiritual khagan
and the military bek
. During the shogunate of Japan, the emperor held spiritual and nominal authority over the whole country, while the shogun
held temporal authority.
(ADO) is an Australian Government organisation which consists of the Australian Defence Force
(ADF) and the civilian Department of Defence
personnel supporting the ADF. The Chief of the Defence Force
and the Secretary of the Department of Defence jointly manage the ADO under a "diarchy", a term used to describe the relationship between the Chief of the Defence Force and the Secretary, both of whom report directly to the Minister for Defence. The ADO diarchy is a governance structure unique in the Australian Commonwealth public service.
Some successful examples include the current government in Jammu and Kashmir
and Karnataka
. A failed one was in 1995 in Uttar Pradesh
between the BSP
and the BJP.
A diarchy condition was introduced by Indian Council Act 1919 in Montagu-Chelmsford Report.
Introduction of diarchy in India :
On 20 August 1917 in the House of Commons, the newly appointed Secretary of State, Lord Montague made the "Grand Declaration". It said that the British policy was "increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration and the gradual development of self-governing institutions with a view to progressive realization of responsible government in British India as an integral part of the British Empire".
In pursuance of the policy laid down in the announcements by Lord Montague, the Secretary of State and Chelmsford, the Viceroy of India made an extensive tour of India in 1917-18 and produced the Montague - Chelmsford Report containing recommendations which paved the way for Government of India Act 1919
.
This act of 1919 introduced dyarchy or dual Government in the provinces. In the provinces, the executive was to be headed by a Governor who was appointed by the Secretary of State and in doing so he might consult the governor general. The Governor was responsible to the Secretary of State for acts of omission and commission. He was to maintain law and order in the province and ensure that provincial administration worked smoothly. In respect of transferred subjects, he was to be assisted by his ministers where as reserved subjects were to be administered by the Governor and his Executive Council.
The members of the Executive council were to be appointed by Secretary of State and were responsible to him in all matters. There were certain matters which he was to administer at his own discretion. In such matters he was responsible to the Secretary of State. Each councillor was to remain in office for a period of four years. Their salaries and service conditions were not subject to the vote of provincial legislature. All decisions in the council were to be taken by a majority of votes and in case of need the Governor could use his casting vote.
operate as a diarchy and have done so since 1998. The devolved government of Northern Ireland
established after the Belfast Agreement
in 1998 has a system whereby the Assembly elects two leaders, one from each of the two main communities (unionist
and nationalist
). These two leaders actually have identical powers even though they are called First Minister and deputy First Minister respectively and serve jointly.
Head of State
A head of state is the individual that serves as the chief public representative of a monarchy, republic, federation, commonwealth or other kind of state. His or her role generally includes legitimizing the state and exercising the political powers, functions, and duties granted to the head of...
. In most diarchies, the diarchs hold their position for life and pass the responsibilities and power of the position to their children or family when they die.
Diarchy is one of the oldest forms of government. Diarchies are known from ancient Sparta
Kings of Sparta
Sparta was an important Greek city-state in the Peloponnesus. It was unusual among Greek city-states in that it maintained its kingship past the Archaic age. It was even more unusual in that it had two kings simultaneously, coming from two separate lines...
, Rome
King of Rome
The King of Rome was the chief magistrate of the Roman Kingdom. According to legend, the first king of Rome was Romulus, who founded the city in 753 BC upon the Palatine Hill. Seven legendary kings are said to have ruled Rome until 509 BC, when the last king was overthrown. These kings ruled for...
, Carthage
Carthage
Carthage , implying it was a 'new Tyre') is a major urban centre that has existed for nearly 3,000 years on the Gulf of Tunis, developing from a Phoenician colony of the 1st millennium BC...
as well as from Germanic and Dacian tribes. Several ancient Polynesian societies exhibited a diarchic political structure as well. Ranks in the Inca Empire
Inca Empire
The Inca Empire, or Inka Empire , was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cusco in modern-day Peru. The Inca civilization arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in the early 13th century...
were structured in moieties, with two occupants of each rank, but with different prestige, one hanan (upper) and one hurin (lower). In modern usage diarchy means a system of dual rule, whether this be of a government or of an organization. Such 'diarchies' are not hereditary.
Modern examples of diarchies are the Principality of Andorra, whose heads of state are the President of France and the Bishop of Urgell, and the Kingdom of Swaziland, where the joint heads of state are the king and his mother.
AndorraAndorraAndorra , officially the Principality of Andorra , also called the Principality of the Valleys of Andorra, , is a small landlocked country in southwestern Europe, located in the eastern Pyrenees mountains and bordered by Spain and France. It is the sixth smallest nation in Europe having an area of...
Andorra is a co-principality. The Diarchs are the President of FrancePresident of the French Republic
The President of the French Republic colloquially referred to in English as the President of France, is France's elected Head of State....
and the Bishop of Urgell. The current co-princes are Nicolas Sarkozy
Nicolas Sarkozy
Nicolas Sarkozy is the 23rd and current President of the French Republic and ex officio Co-Prince of Andorra. He assumed the office on 16 May 2007 after defeating the Socialist Party candidate Ségolène Royal 10 days earlier....
and Joan Enric Vives Sicília
Joan Enric Vives Sicília
Archbishop Joan Enric Vives i Sicília is the current Bishop of Urgell, a Roman Catholic diocese, and ex officio Co-Prince of Andorra...
respectively.
SwazilandSwazilandSwaziland, officially the Kingdom of Swaziland , and sometimes called Ngwane or Swatini, is a landlocked country in Southern Africa, bordered to the north, south and west by South Africa, and to the east by Mozambique...
The Kingdom of Swaziland is a diarchy in which the king (Ngwenyama) rules in conjunction with his mother the queen mother (Indlovukazi). In practice however, most power is vested in the king, though it is often argued that the giving of authority wholesale to the royal male in this way is a neo-traditionalistic as opposed to truly traditional custom.Roman Republic
The Roman RepublicRoman Republic
The Roman Republic was the period of the ancient Roman civilization where the government operated as a republic. It began with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy, traditionally dated around 508 BC, and its replacement by a government headed by two consuls, elected annually by the citizens and...
was ruled by two consuls, elected each year and each holding a veto power over the other's actions.
Swedish monarchs
- Erik and Alrik
- Yngvi and AlfYngvi and AlfYngvi and Alf were two legendary Swedish kings of the House of Yngling.According to Ynglingatal, Historia Norwegiae and Ynglinga saga, Yngvi and Alf were the sons of Alrik....
- Björn at Hauge and Anund UppsaleAnund UppsaleAnund Uppsale or Anoundus, English exonym: Anwynd of Upsala, ruled Sweden together with his brother Björn at Haugi, according to Rimbert and Hervarar saga...
- Eric the Victorious and Olof (II) BjörnssonOlof (II) BjörnssonOlof Björnsson , was a semi-legendary Swedish king, who according to Hervarar saga and the Styrbjarnar þáttr Svíakappa ruled together with his brother Eric the Victorious. He was the father of Styrbjörn Starke and Gyrid by his queen, Ingeborg Thrandsdotter, and he died of poison during a meal...
- Eric the Victorious and Olof Skötkonung
- Halsten Stenkilsson and Inge IInge I of SwedenInge the Elder was a King of Sweden.-Biography:Inge was the son of the former King Stenkil and a Swedish princess. Inge shared the rule of the kingdom with his probably elder brother Halsten Stenkilsson, but little is known with certainty of Inge's reign...
- Philip and Inge II
English, Scottish and Irish monarchs
- William IIIWilliam III of EnglandWilliam III & II was a sovereign Prince of Orange of the House of Orange-Nassau by birth. From 1672 he governed as Stadtholder William III of Orange over Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders, and Overijssel of the Dutch Republic. From 1689 he reigned as William III over England and Ireland...
and Mary IIMary II of EnglandMary II was joint Sovereign of England, Scotland, and Ireland with her husband and first cousin, William III and II, from 1689 until her death. William and Mary, both Protestants, became king and queen regnant, respectively, following the Glorious Revolution, which resulted in the deposition of...
Lithuanian monarchs
The Lithuanian Grand Dukes typically selected submonarchs from their families or loyal subjects to assist controlling the Grand DuchyGrand Duchy of Lithuania
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a European state from the 12th /13th century until 1569 and then as a constituent part of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth until 1791 when Constitution of May 3, 1791 abolished it in favor of unitary state. It was founded by the Lithuanians, one of the polytheistic...
. However, the Grand Dukes remained superior.
- VytenisVytenisVytenis was the Grand Duke of Lithuania from c. 1295 to c. 1316. He became the first of the Gediminid dynasty to rule for a considerable amount of time. In the early 14th century his reputation outshone that of Gediminas, who is regarded by modern historians as one of the greatest Lithuanian rulers...
(superior) and Gediminas - Gediminas (superior) and an unknown duke of TrakaiTrakaiTrakai is a historic city and lake resort in Lithuania. It lies 28 km west of Vilnius, the capital of Lithuania. Because of its proximity to Vilnius, Trakai is a popular tourist destination. Trakai is the administrative centre of Trakai district municipality. The town covers 11.52 km2 of...
, presumably Gediminas's son. - AlgirdasAlgirdasAlgirdas was a monarch of medieval Lithuania. Algirdas ruled the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from 1345 to 1377, which chiefly meant monarch of Lithuanians and Ruthenians...
(superior) and KęstutisKestutisKęstutis was monarch of medieval Lithuania. He was the Duke of Trakai and governed the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, 1342–82, together with his brother Algirdas , and with his nephew Jogaila... - JogailaJogailaJogaila, later 'He is known under a number of names: ; ; . See also: Jogaila : names and titles. was Grand Duke of Lithuania , king consort of Kingdom of Poland , and sole King of Poland . He ruled in Lithuania from 1377, at first with his uncle Kęstutis...
(superior) and KęstutisKestutisKęstutis was monarch of medieval Lithuania. He was the Duke of Trakai and governed the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, 1342–82, together with his brother Algirdas , and with his nephew Jogaila...
A slightly different system developed for a brief period after Vytautas became Grand Duke, where nominally Vytautas ruled together with Jogaila
Jogaila
Jogaila, later 'He is known under a number of names: ; ; . See also: Jogaila : names and titles. was Grand Duke of Lithuania , king consort of Kingdom of Poland , and sole King of Poland . He ruled in Lithuania from 1377, at first with his uncle Kęstutis...
, who took the title of aukščiausiasis kunigaikštis (Supreme Duke), but he has not once used the title to take any action, and in general the powers invested in the title were not clearly stated in any documents, besides the Pact of Horodlo, which guaranteed that Jogaila would have to approve the selection of a Lithuanian Grand Duke. The title was not used by any other king of Poland after Jogaila.
- Vytautas (Grand Duke) and JogailaJogailaJogaila, later 'He is known under a number of names: ; ; . See also: Jogaila : names and titles. was Grand Duke of Lithuania , king consort of Kingdom of Poland , and sole King of Poland . He ruled in Lithuania from 1377, at first with his uncle Kęstutis...
(Supreme Duke) - ŠvitrigailaŠvitrigailaŠvitrigaila Švitrigaila Švitrigaila (ca 1370 – 10 February 1452; was the Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1430 to 1432. He spent most of his life in largely unsuccessful dynastic struggles against his cousins Vytautas and Sigismund Kęstutaitis.-Struggle against Vytautas:...
(Grand Duke) and JogailaJogailaJogaila, later 'He is known under a number of names: ; ; . See also: Jogaila : names and titles. was Grand Duke of Lithuania , king consort of Kingdom of Poland , and sole King of Poland . He ruled in Lithuania from 1377, at first with his uncle Kęstutis...
(Supreme Duke) for a brief period, until Švitrigaila declared war on Poland - Sigismund I of Lithuania (Grand Duke) and JogailaJogailaJogaila, later 'He is known under a number of names: ; ; . See also: Jogaila : names and titles. was Grand Duke of Lithuania , king consort of Kingdom of Poland , and sole King of Poland . He ruled in Lithuania from 1377, at first with his uncle Kęstutis...
(Supreme Duke) until Jogaila's death.
Classical Sparta
Classical SpartaSparta
Sparta or Lacedaemon, was a prominent city-state in ancient Greece, situated on the banks of the River Eurotas in Laconia, in south-eastern Peloponnese. It emerged as a political entity around the 10th century BC, when the invading Dorians subjugated the local, non-Dorian population. From c...
in ancient Greece was ruled by two kings who could veto one anothers actions, in addition Sparta had group of a officials known as Ephors and a council of elders.
Spiritual and temporal kings
Another common pattern of diarchy has one king in charge of spiritual matters and another, usually subordinate to the first, in charge of temporal or military matters. This pattern was followed in early Hungarian society by the spiritual kendeKende
The kende was one of the kings of the dual-monarchy of the early Magyars, along with the gyula or war-chief. The function of the kende is believed to have been a religious one. At the time of the Magyar migration to Pannonia, the Kende was named Kurszán...
and the military gyula
Gyula
Gyula was, according to Muslim and Byzantine sources, the title of one of the leaders, the second in rank, of the Hungarian tribal federation in the 9th-10th centuries. In the earliest Hungarian sources, the title name is only recorded as a personal name...
. The Khazars were ruled by the spiritual khagan
Khagan
Khagan or qagan , alternatively spelled kagan, khaghan, qaghan, or chagan, is a title of imperial rank in the Mongolian and Turkic languages equal to the status of emperor and someone who rules a khaganate...
and the military bek
Bek
Bek or BEK may refer to:*Bek, an alternative spelling of Bey, master*Khagan Bek, the title of the king of the Khazars*Bek Ohmsford, a character in the Shannara series of books*Bruce Eric Kaplan, a cartoonist for The New Yorker...
. During the shogunate of Japan, the emperor held spiritual and nominal authority over the whole country, while the shogun
Shogun
A was one of the hereditary military dictators of Japan from 1192 to 1867. In this period, the shoguns, or their shikken regents , were the de facto rulers of Japan though they were nominally appointed by the emperor...
held temporal authority.
Australian Defence Organisation
The Australian Defence OrganisationAustralian Defence Organisation
The Australian Defence Organisation is an Australian Government organisation which consists of the Australian Defence Force and the civilian Department of Defence personnel supporting the ADF...
(ADO) is an Australian Government organisation which consists of the Australian Defence Force
Australian Defence Force
The Australian Defence Force is the military organisation responsible for the defence of Australia. It consists of the Royal Australian Navy , Australian Army, Royal Australian Air Force and a number of 'tri-service' units...
(ADF) and the civilian Department of Defence
Department of Defence (Australia)
The Australian Department of Defence is a Federal Government Department. It forms part of the Australian Defence Organisation along with the Australian Defence Force . The Defence mission is to defend Australia and its national interests...
personnel supporting the ADF. The Chief of the Defence Force
Chief of the Defence Force (Australia)
Chief of the Defence Force is the most senior appointment in the Australian Defence Force . The CDF commands the ADF under the direction of the Minister of Defence, in a coequal arrangement with the Secretary of Defence, the most senior public servant in the Department of Defence.The position is a...
and the Secretary of the Department of Defence jointly manage the ADO under a "diarchy", a term used to describe the relationship between the Chief of the Defence Force and the Secretary, both of whom report directly to the Minister for Defence. The ADO diarchy is a governance structure unique in the Australian Commonwealth public service.
India
Due to shaky coalition governments in the recent past, Diarchies have been both successfully and unsuccessfully tested in India.Some successful examples include the current government in Jammu and Kashmir
Jammu and Kashmir
Jammu and Kashmir is the northernmost state of India. It is situated mostly in the Himalayan mountains. Jammu and Kashmir shares a border with the states of Himachal Pradesh and Punjab to the south and internationally with the People's Republic of China to the north and east and the...
and Karnataka
Karnataka
Karnataka , the land of the Kannadigas, is a state in South West India. It was created on 1 November 1956, with the passing of the States Reorganisation Act and this day is annually celebrated as Karnataka Rajyotsava...
. A failed one was in 1995 in Uttar Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh abbreviation U.P. , is a state located in the northern part of India. With a population of over 200 million people, it is India's most populous state, as well as the world's most populous sub-national entity...
between the BSP
Bahujan Samaj Party
The Bahujan Samaj Party is a centrist national political party in India with socialist leanings. It was formed to chiefly represent Bahujans , referring to people from the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Castes as well as Buddhists. The party claims to be inspired by the...
and the BJP.
A diarchy condition was introduced by Indian Council Act 1919 in Montagu-Chelmsford Report.
Introduction of diarchy in India :
On 20 August 1917 in the House of Commons, the newly appointed Secretary of State, Lord Montague made the "Grand Declaration". It said that the British policy was "increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration and the gradual development of self-governing institutions with a view to progressive realization of responsible government in British India as an integral part of the British Empire".
In pursuance of the policy laid down in the announcements by Lord Montague, the Secretary of State and Chelmsford, the Viceroy of India made an extensive tour of India in 1917-18 and produced the Montague - Chelmsford Report containing recommendations which paved the way for Government of India Act 1919
Government of India Act 1919
-See also:*British India*British Raj*History of Bangladesh*History of India*History of Pakistan*Governor-General of India*Government of India Act*India Office*Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms*Secretary of State for India...
.
This act of 1919 introduced dyarchy or dual Government in the provinces. In the provinces, the executive was to be headed by a Governor who was appointed by the Secretary of State and in doing so he might consult the governor general. The Governor was responsible to the Secretary of State for acts of omission and commission. He was to maintain law and order in the province and ensure that provincial administration worked smoothly. In respect of transferred subjects, he was to be assisted by his ministers where as reserved subjects were to be administered by the Governor and his Executive Council.
The members of the Executive council were to be appointed by Secretary of State and were responsible to him in all matters. There were certain matters which he was to administer at his own discretion. In such matters he was responsible to the Secretary of State. Each councillor was to remain in office for a period of four years. Their salaries and service conditions were not subject to the vote of provincial legislature. All decisions in the council were to be taken by a majority of votes and in case of need the Governor could use his casting vote.
Northern Ireland
The positions First Minister and deputy First MinisterFirst Minister and deputy First Minister
The First Minister and the Deputy First Minister , sometimes abbreviated to FM/DFM, are positions in the Northern Ireland...
operate as a diarchy and have done so since 1998. The devolved government of Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland is one of the four countries of the United Kingdom. Situated in the north-east of the island of Ireland, it shares a border with the Republic of Ireland to the south and west...
established after the Belfast Agreement
Belfast Agreement
The Good Friday Agreement or Belfast Agreement , sometimes called the Stormont Agreement, was a major political development in the Northern Ireland peace process...
in 1998 has a system whereby the Assembly elects two leaders, one from each of the two main communities (unionist
Unionism in Ireland
Unionism in Ireland is an ideology that favours the continuation of some form of political union between the islands of Ireland and Great Britain...
and nationalist
Irish nationalism
Irish nationalism manifests itself in political and social movements and in sentiment inspired by a love for Irish culture, language and history, and as a sense of pride in Ireland and in the Irish people...
). These two leaders actually have identical powers even though they are called First Minister and deputy First Minister respectively and serve jointly.
Diarchies in Popular Culture
- The nation of Equestria from the popular animated TV show My Little Pony: Friendship is MagicMy Little Pony: Friendship is MagicMy Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic is an animated television series that premiered on October 10, 2010 on the United States cable network The Hub, and is based on Hasbro's My Little Pony line of toys and animated works. The series is produced by Hasbro Studios and DHX Media Vancouver...
operates, or at least used to, under a diarchy between the day princess Celestia and her younger sister Luna, the night princess.