Digital divide - AbsoluteAstronomy.com

The Digital Divide refers to inequalities between individuals, households, business, and geographic areas at different socioeconomic levels in access to information and communication technologies (ICTs) and Internet connectivity and in the knowledge and skills needed to effectively use the information gained . The digital divide in the United States should not be confused with the Global digital divide

Global digital divide

The global digital divide is a term used to describe “great disparities in opportunity to access the Internet and the information and educational/business opportunities tied to this access … between developed and developing countries”...

which also refers to inequalities in access, knowledge, and skills, but designates countries as the units of analysis and examines the divide between developing and developed countries on an international scale .

Approaches

Conceptualization of the digital divide is often as follows:

1. Theoretical explanations for the digital divide, or who connects with which attributes: demographic characteristics of connected individuals and their cohorts.

2. Means of connectivity, or how individuals and their cohorts are connecting and to what: infrastructure, location, and network availability.

3. Purpose of connectivity, or why individuals and their cohorts are connecting: reasons individuals are online and uses of the Internet and ICTs.

4. Lack of connectivity, or why individuals and their cohorts are not connecting.

In coveted research, while each explanation is examined, the others should be controlled for in order to eliminate interaction effects or mediating variables

Mediator

Mediator may refer to:*A neutral party who assists in negotiations and conflict resolution, the process being known as mediation*Mediator variable in statistics*The Mediator pattern in computer science...

, but these explanations are meant to stand as general trends, not direct causes, of the digital divide in the United States. Additionally, incidence and frequency of usage varies by study. Some report usage as access to Internet and ICTs while others report usage as having previously connected to the Internet.

Gender

By 2001, women had surpassed men in the majority of the online United States population. 2009 Census data suggests that potential disparities in gendered connectivity has become nearly nonexistent; 73% of female citizens three years and older compared to 74% of males could access the Internet from their home

Age

Since the year 2000, Americans 65 and older have consistently been the age cohort with the lowest level of access to the Internet. Between 2000 and 2004, 22% of Americans 65 and older reported having Internet access, compared to 15% in 2000. In 2004, of Americans ages 50–64, 58% reported access, 30–49, 75% reported access, and 18–29, 77% reported access. By September of 2009 for teens and November of 2010 for adults, 40% of adults 65 and older, 70% of adults 50–64, 84% of adults 30–49, 90% of adults 18–29, and 93% of teenagers 12–17 used the Internet.

Even though the United States' older adult population has increased its Internet access, they still exhibit relatively low levels of connectivity compared to other age cohorts. Only 4% of the GI Generation

Generation

Generation , also known as procreation in biological sciences, is the act of producing offspring....

(born 1901-1926), 7% of the Silent Generation

Silent Generation

Silent Generation is a label for the generation born from 1925–1945 notably during the Great Depression and World War II . While the label was originally applied to people in North America, it has also been applied to those in Western Europe and Australasia...

(born 1927-1945), 35% of the Baby Boomers (born 1946-1964), 28% of Generation X

Generation X

Generation X, commonly abbreviated to Gen X, is the generation born after the Western post–World War II baby boom ended. While there is no universally agreed upon time frame, the term generally includes people born from the early 1960's through the early 1980's, usually no later than 1981 or...

(1965-early 1980s), and 30% of Generation Y

Generation Y

Generation Y, also known as the Millennial Generation , Generation Next, Net Generation, or Echo Boomers, describes the demographic cohort following Generation X. There are no precise dates for when the Millennial generation starts and ends, and commentators have used birth dates ranging somewhere...

(1980s-end of the 20th century) had connected to the Internet by February 2008.

Race and ethnicity

As of August 2010, 77% White, 66% Black, and 65% Hispanic adults were Internet users. Internet use for Latino adults rose from 54% to 64% during the years 2006 to 2008, while Internet usage rates for White adults grew only by 4%, and usage rates for Black adults grew by only 2%. Much of the growth in the Latino adult Internet population can be accounted for by examining the differential usages of U.S.-born Latinos versus foreign-born Latinos: 81% versus 54% in 2010, respectively. 85% of Latinos ages 18–29, 69% ages 30–44, 58% ages 45–59, and 29% ages 60 and older use the Internet. The most significant increase in Internet use exists in the 18- to 29-year-old cohort of Latinos, from 75% in 2009 to 85% in 2010.

Of all adults, English-speaking Hispanics are the fastest rising ethnic cohort in terms of Internet usage. In this Pew survey, there was no Spanish language option, so respondents who spoke primarily Spanish were not participants. In 2010, 81% of English-dominant Latinos, 74% bilingual Latinos, and 47% Spanish-dominant Latinos use the Internet. Even though the rate of dominant Spanish-speaking Latinos is low, comparatively, it has risen significantly since 36% in 2009.

African Americans are behind whites in Internet access, but the gap is most evident within the senior population: in 2003, 11% of African Americans age 65 and older reported using the Internet, compared to 22% of senior whites. Also in 2003, 68% of 18- to 24-year-old African Americans and 83% of 18- to 24-year-old Whites had Internet access. A similar gap is noted in the 55- to 64-year-old range with 58% of Whites and 22% of African Americans accessing the Internet

In 2003, 21% of English-speaking Hispanic seniors reported using the Internet. This percentage is statistically equal to the 22% of senior non-Hispanic whites who reported using the Internet in 2003. Compared to 83% of 18- to 24-year-old non-Hispanic whites, 70% of English-speaking Hispanics 18–24 years old reported using the Internet in 2003. 58% of non-Hispanic whites ages 55–64 reported connectivity as compared to 32% of English-speaking Hispanics ages 55–64 in 2003.

Finally, between 2000 and 2010, the racial population of Internet users has become more and more similar to the racial makeup of the United States population, but African Americans remain behind whites in the likelihood to connect

Income

Household income and internet use are strongly related. In 2010, 57% of individuals earning <$30,000, 80% of individuals earning $30,000 - $49,999, 86% of individuals earning $50,000 - $74,999, and 95% of individuals earning $75,000 and more used the Internet.

25% of connected seniors lived in households whose annual income exceeded $75,000 in 2000, compared to 8% of all seniors. In February of 2004, 17% of connected seniors lived in high-income households as compared to 4% of the total senior population. However, 39% of seniors refused to report income in the February 2004 survey.

In 2010, 57% of Latinos living in <$30,000 household incomes used the Internet. 79% of all Latinos in households who earn between $30,000 and $49,999 per year were connected to the Internet in 2010. 91% of Latino households earning %50,000 or more per year were connected to the Internet in 2010. 59% of Whites who earned less than $30,000 per year used the Internet, followed by 82% of Whites who earned $30,000 - $49,999, and 92% of Whites who earned $50,000 or more. For African Americans, 54% who earned less than $30,000 connected to the Internet, 88% who earned $30,000 to $49,999, and 89% who earned $50,000 or more.

The Pew Internet & American Life Project identifies income as an independent variable that positively predicts the likelihood that a person will be connected to the Internet. Income is not majorly affected by any other controls (age, gender, race, education, or community types).

Educational attainment

In 2008, Internet usage in the U.S. was reported to be 44% among those with no high school degree, 63% among high school graduates, and 91% among college graduates.

In 2000, about 75% of all connected seniors had at least attended college, in comparison to 36% of all seniors. 25% of connected seniors had a high school diploma or less. In 2004, higher numbers of less-educated seniors have connected to the Internet: 62% of all connected seniors had at least some college education, in comparison to 35% of all seniors. 30% of connected seniors (up from 25% in 2000) had a high school diploma or less, compared to 58% of all seniors with a high school diploma or less.

In 2010, 46% of Whites online reported no high school diploma, compared to 43 % of Blacks online and 42% of Hispanics online. 68% of Hispanics who achieved high school graduation are online, compared to 64% of Whites and 58% of Blacks. Finally, 91% of Hispanics who received some college education or more are online, with 90% of Whites and 84% of Blacks achieving some college education or more are also connected.

Infrastructure

The infrastructure by which individuals, households, businesses, and communities connect to the Internet address the physical mediums that people use to connect to the Internet such as desktop computers, laptops, cell phones, iPods or other MP3 players, Xboxes or Play Stations, electronic books readers, and tablets such as iPads. Other than desktops, most types of Internet capable infrastructure connects through wireless means. In 2009, 56% of Americans said that they have connected to the Internet through wireless means.

Within the G.I. generation (75 years and older), 28% own desktop and 10% own laptops. Of the Silent Generation

Silent Generation

(66–74 years), 48% own desktops and 30% own laptops. 64% of the Older Baby Boomers (57–65 years) own desktops and 43% own laptops. 65% of the Younger Boomers (47–56 years) own desktops and 49% own laptops. 69% of Generation X

Generation X

(35–46 years) owns desktops and 61% owns laptops. Generation Y

Generation Y

(or the Millenials) are the only generation whose laptop use exceeds desktop use of 70% to 57%, relatively. Of adults over 65, only 45% have a computer (40% of adults 65 and older use the Internet).

85% of all adults 18 and over own a cell phone, or a Blackberry or iPhone or other device that serves as a cell phone. Broken up into age cohorts, 48% of ages 75 and older, 68% of 66- to 74-year-olds, 84% of 57- to 65-year-olds, 86% of 47- to 56-year-olds, 92% of 35- to 46-year-olds, and 95% of 18- to 34-year-olds own a cell phone, or a Blackberry of iPhone or other device that serves as a cell phone.

Of each age cohorts who own a cell phone, or a Blackberry or iPhone or other device that serves as a cell phone, 2% of adults 75 and older, 17% of adults ages 66–74, 15% of ages 57–65, 25% of 47- to 56-year-olds, 42% of 35- to 46-year-olds, and 63% of 18- to 34-year-olds use their phone to access the Internet.

In 2010, 76% of Hispanic, 79% of Black, and 85% of White adults were using cell phones. 34% of White cell phone owners, 40% of Hispanic cell phone owners, and 51% of Black cell phone owners use their phones to access the Internet.

47% of all adults own an iPod or MP3 player. 3% of 75+, 16% of ages 66–74, 26% of ages 57–65, 42% of ages 47–56, 56% of ages 35–46, and 74% of ages 18–34 own an iPod or MP3 player.
Relatively similarly, 42% of adults own a game console such as an Xbox or Play Station. 3% of adults 75 and older, 8% of the adults ages 66–74, 19% of adults ages 57–65, 38% of adults ages 47–56, 63% of adults ages 35–46 and 18–34 own a game console.

Adult age cohorts owning e-Book readers and iPads or tablets are similar percentages as well. 5% of all adults own an e-Book reader compared to 4% owning an iPad or tablet. 2% of adults ages 75 + own an e-Book compared to 1% owning a tablet, 6% of 66- to 74-year-olds own an e-Book compared to 1% owning a tablet, 3% of adults ages 57–65 own an e-book reader and an iPad or tablet, 7% of adults ages 47–56 own an e-Book reader compared to 4% owning an iPad or tablet, and 5% of adults ages 18–46 own an e-Book reader and an iPad or tablet.

Age is negatively related to incidence of owning a device: 1% of 18- to 34-year-olds, 3% of 35- to 46-year-olds, 8% of 47- to 56-year-olds, 20% of 66- to 74-year-olds, and 43% of 75-year-olds and older own none of the previously listed devices.

Location

Internet connectivity can be utilized at a variety of locations such as homes, offices, schools, libraries, public spaces, Internet cafes, etc. There are also varying levels of connectivity in rural, suburban, and urban neighborhoods.

Of the 88% of individuals who connected on their laptop or netbook to a wireless connection, 86% used the device at home, 37% at work, and 54% somewhere else other than home or work.

Purpose of connectivity

The most common reasons for connecting to the Internet include email at 48%, using search engines at 31%, reading news at 27%, surfing for fun at 23%, using the Internet as a hobby at 21%, information searches at 21%, researching products before purchase at 15%, finding financial information at 12%, and listening to audio and watching video clips at 11%.

On cell phones, Blacks 41% of Blacks and 47% of English-speaking Hispanics send and receive email on cell phones, as compared to 30% of Whites. Significant differences between the racial groups include sending and receiving instant messages, using social networking sites, watching videos, and positing photos or videos online.

Lack of connectivity

Physical, financial, spatial, psychological, and skill-based barriers exist in access of different demographics to Internet and Internet skills:

25% of American adults live with a disability that interferes with daily living activities. 54% of adults living with a disability still connect to the internet. 2% of adults say they have a disability or illness that makes it more difficult or impossible for them to effectively and efficiently use the Internet.

Psychological aversion to the Internet influences an individual's psychological barriers to Internet usage involving which individuals connect and for what purpose. Comfort displayed toward technology can be described as comfort performing a task and concerning the medium and infrastructure by which to connect. Technological infrastructure sometimes causes privacy and security concerns leading to a lack of connectivity for some users. Location of the infrastructure influences technological comfort as well.

Individuals that exhibit computer anxiety demonstrate fear towards the initial experience of computer usage or the process of using a computer. From this, many researchers conclude that increased computer experience could lead to lower anxiety levels. Others suggest that individuals demonstrate anxiety towards specific computer tasks, such as using the Internet, rather than anxiety towards computers in general. . .

Communication apprehension influences propensity to use only Internet applications that promote engagement in communication with other people such as Skype or iChat .

Overcoming the digital divide in the United States

Founded in 1996, the Boston Digital Bridge Foundation attempts to enhance children's and their parents' computer knowledge, program application usage, and ability to easily navigate the Internet. In 2010, the City of Boston received a 4.3 million dollar grant from the National Telecommunications and Information Administration

National Telecommunications and Information Administration

The National Telecommunications and Information Administration is an agency of the United States Department of Commerce that serves as the President's principal adviser on telecommunications policies pertaining to the United States' economic and technological advancement and to regulation of the...

. The grant will attempt to provide internet access and training to underserved populations including parents, children, youth, and the elderly.

The United Nations

United Nations

The United Nations is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace...

is aiming to raise awareness of the divide by way of the World Information Society Day

World Information Society Day

World Information Society Day was proclaimed to be on 17 May by a United Nations General Assembly resolution, following the 2005 World Summit on the Information Society in Tunis....

which has taken place yearly since May 17, 2001. It also set up the Information and Communications Technology (ICT) Task Force in November 2001.

In 2004 in Houston, Texas, a non-profit organization called Technology for All (TFA) established a free broadband Wi-Fi network in an underserved community called Pecan Park. An additional grant in 2010 assisted TFA, in collaboration with Rice University, in upgrading their Wi-Fi network to a new long-range version, a "Super Wi-Fi" in order to enhance network speed and computer quality.
In 2007, a project called One Laptop per Child, Raspberry_Pi and 50x15 are have been implemented in attempting to reduce the digital divide by providing cheaper infrastructure necessary to connect.

In 2007, the use of “hotspot” zones-where people can access free Wi-Fi help bridge access to the Internet-was introduced. Due to a majority percentage (55) connecting wirelessly, this policy can assist in providing more comprehensive network coverage, but also ignores an underprivileged population who do not own a laptop and still lack access to the Internet and ICTs.
Since 2008, organizations such as Geekcorps and Inveneo have been working to reduce the by emphasizing ICTs within a classroom context. Technology used often includes laptops, handhelds (e.g. Simputer, E-slate, ...), tablet PCs, Mini-ITX PCs, cantennas, and WokFis.

In 2011, Congresswoman Doris Matsui introduced the Broadband Affordability Act, which calls for the U.S. Federal Communications Commission

Federal Communications Commission

The Federal Communications Commission is an independent agency of the United States government, created, Congressional statute , and with the majority of its commissioners appointed by the current President. The FCC works towards six goals in the areas of broadband, competition, the spectrum, the...

(FCC) subsidize low-income citizens in affording access to broadband Internet service, assisting in closing the gap between high-income and low-income households. The Act would expand the program to offer discounted internet service to lower-income consumers living in urban and rural areas.

Social capital

Once an individual is connected, Internet connectivity and ICTs can enhance their future social and cultural capital. Social capital is acquired through repeated interactions with other individuals or groups of individuals. Connecting to the Internet creates another set of means by which to achieve repeated interactions. ICTs and Internet connectivity enable repeated interactions through access to social networks, chat rooms, and gaming sites. Once an individual has access to connectivity, obtains infrastructure by which to connect, and can understand and use the information that ICTs and connectivity provide, that individual is capable of becoming a "digital citizen".

Economic gains

Technology has benefitted the United States in that 61% of businesses who use the Internet saved $155.2 billion as a result of ICTs as more efficient means in productivity

Within the capabilities approach

An individual must be able to connect in order to achieve enhancement of social and cultural capital and achieve mass economic gains in productivity. Even though individuals in the United States are legally capable of accessing the Internet, many are thwarted by barriers to entry such as a lack of means to infrastructure or the inability to comprehend the information that the Internet provides. Lack of infrastructure and lack of knowledge are two major obstacles that impede mass connectivity. These barriers limit individuals' capabilities in what they can do and what they can achieve in accessing technology. Some individuals have the ability to connect, but have nonfunctioning capabilities in that they do not have the knowledge to use what information ICTs and Internet technologies provide them.

Second-level digital divide

The second-level digital divide, also referred to as the production gap, describes the gap that separates the consumers of content on the internet from the producers of content. As the technological digital divide is decreasing between those with access to the internet and those without, the meaning of the term digital divide is evolving. Previously, digital divide research has focused on accessibility to the internet and internet consumption. However, with more and more of the population with access to the internet, researchers are examining how people use the internet to create content and what impact socioeconomics are having on user behavior. New applications have made it possible for anyone with a computer and an internet connection to be a creator of content, yet the majority of user generated content available widely on the internet, like public blogs, is created by a small portion of the internet using population. Web 2.0 technologies like Facebook, Youtube, Twitter, and Blogs enable users to participate online and create content without having to understand how the technology actually works, leading to an ever increasing digital divide between those who have the skills and understanding to interact more fully with the technology and those who are passive consumers of it. Many are only nominal content creators through the use of Web 2.0, like posting photos and status updates on Facebook, but not truly interacting with the technology. Some of the reasons for this production gap include material factors like what type of internet connection one has and the frequency of access to the internet. The more frequently a person has access to the internet and the faster the connection, the more opportunities they have to gain the technology skills and the more time they have to be creative. Other reasons include cultural factors often associated with class and socioeconomic status. Users of lower socioeconomic status are less likely to participate in content creation due to disadvantages in education and lack of the necessary free time for the work involved in blog or web site creation and maintenance.

The knowledge divide

Since gender, age, racial, income, and educational gaps in the digital divide have lessened compared to past levels, some researchers suggest that the digital divide is shifting from a gap in access and connectivity to ICTs to a Knowledge divide

Knowledge divide

The concept of the knowledge divide refers to the gaps in standards of living and economic development that exist between those who can find, create, manage, process, and disseminate information or knowledge, and those who are impaired in this process...

. A knowledge divide concerning technology presents the possibility that the gap has moved beyond access and having the resources to connect to ICTs to interpreting and understanding information presented once connected

External links

The source of this article is wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. The text of this article is licensed under the GFDL.