Direct instruction
Encyclopedia
Direct Instruction is an instructional method that is focused on systematic curriculum design and skillful implementation of a prescribed behavioral script
.
On the premise that all students can learn and all teachers successfully teach if given effective training in specific techniques, teachers may be evaluated based on measurable student learning. A frequent statement in discussions of the methodology is "If the student doesn't learn, the teacher hasn't taught." (Tarver, 1999)
Direct Instruction was originally developed in the 1960s by Siegfried Engelmann and the late Wesley C. Becker of the University of Oregon
, and it was the subject of an extensive federally-funded research and implementation program called Project Follow Through
.
It is sometimes used in resource room
programs in schools.
students. DI was an attempt to merge rule learning with the principles of applied behavior analysis
. In this light, it can be considered a highly successful combination
The DISTAR
(Direct Instruction System for Teaching Arithmetic and Reading) program gained prominence during Project Follow Through (1967–1995), the largest federally funded experiment in public education.
Features of DI include:
Direct instruction has been effectively delivered through peers to students with learning disabilities.
Peer delivery offers teachers new ways to effectively use the curriculum. The approach has also been examined as an effective model to assist students in a resource room
with homework completion, bolster executive functioning skills and improve teacher efficiency.
In the past decade Direct Instruction curricula, especially Language for Learning, have become popular tools for teaching language arts skills to children with developmental disabilities such as autism
and other Pervasive Developmental Disorders. Knowledge of Direct Instruction methods is mandatory for any applicant aspiring to become a Board Certified Behavior Analyst (BCBA). Board certification in behavior analysis is an attempt to set quality levels for behavior analytic practice (see Professional practice of behavior analysis
).
were published; however, there is substantial empirical research supporting its effectiveness. A meta-analysis published by Adams & Engelmann (1996), a chief architect of the DI program, finds a "mean effect size average per study...(as) more than .75, which confirms that the overall effect is substantial."
In some special education programs it is used in a resource room
with small groups of students. Some research has shown benefit with this model.
However, one three-year study of methods of teaching reading showed that highly scripted, teacher-directed methods of teaching reading were not as effective as traditional methods that allowed a more flexible approach. The study, headed by Randall Ryder, Professor of Curriculum and Instruction in the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee School of Education, also found that teachers felt the most highly scripted method, known as Direct Instruction (DI), should be used in limited situations, not as the primary method of teaching students to read. (Ryder, et al., 2006) Urban teachers in particular expressed great concern over the DI's lack of sensitivity to issues of poverty
, culture
and race. (Ryder et al., 2006).
The findings from Ryder's study are not constant with the findings of more than twenty other studies. (See the critique of Ryder's study noting the inherent methodological flaws.) Direct Instruction is widely and successfully used with students from every population segment (with regard to poverty, culture, and race). In Project Follow Through
, the DI model was ranked first in achievement for poor students, students who were not poor, urban students, rural students, African American
students, Hispanic
students, and Native American
students. Today, many of the Bureau of Indian Affair's highest-performing schools use Direct Instruction materials. See Chief Leschi School
and Nay Ah Shing School. The Baltimore Curriculum Project has many schools with Free and Reduced Lunch Rates above 75% serving student populations that are more than 90% African American. These schools have shown strong achievement gains using Direct Instruction (Rebar, 2007).
Meta-analysis of 85 single-subject design studies comparing direct instruction to other teaching strategies found the effects to be substantial for students with learning disabilities; however, when qualified by IQ and reading levels strategy instruction (SI) had better effects for the high IQ group. For the low-IQ discrepancy groups higher effect sizes were yielded for a Combined DI and SI Model when compared to all competing models. With the exception of handwriting DI's effects were all above .8 (i.e., reading and mathematics).
John Hattie's Visible Learning: A Synthesis of Over 800 Meta-Analyses Relating to Achievement (2009) summarizes the results of four meta-analyses that examined Direct Instruction. These analyses incorporated 304 studies of over 42,000 students. Across all of these students, the average affect size was .59 and was significantly larger than those of any other curriculum Hattie studied.
Direct Instruction is recognized as one of two effective models of comprehensive school reform (see the federal government's site on Comprehensive School Reform) (See http://www.csrq.org/CSRQreportselementaryschoolreport.asp) and in many cases, can be integrated into a tiered model system to address students will developing problems. The findings from Project Follow Through
, conducted in a variety of communities throughout the United States, conclude that Direct Instruction is the most effective model for teaching academic skills and for affective outcomes (e.g., self-esteem
of children). Recent large scale studies (1997–2003), such as the Baltimore Curriculum Project, show that it is possible to help schools that are in the lowest twenty percent with respect to academic achievement steadily improve until they are performing well above average. In some cases, school achievement improved from the 16th percentile to above the 90th percentile (Rebar, 2007).
The president of the National Science Teachers Association
(NSTA), Anne Tweed, also questions whether direct instruction is the most effective science teaching strategy. In the December 15, 2004 NSTA Reports she concluded that a variety of teaching strategies, including those that are inquiry-based (see inquiry-based instruction
) as well as direct instruction techniques are what is best for students (Tweed, 2004).
Currently, Direct Instruction is one of the few curriculums that have been scientifically validated to be effective for use in the Response to Intervention model, which has been proposed as an alternative method of diagnosing learning disabilities in schools.
, egalitarian foundations of public education, or as a "canned" or "teacher proof" curriculum deliverable via unskilled teachers. DI has been criticized for being so inflexible that it "handcuffs" teachers. More radical critics argue that the entire history of public education
in the United States
has been a political one, designed primarily to domesticate lower socio-economic groups, and that DI is in keeping with this broader, historical purpose. Libertarian
and traditional conservative critics see the approach as too authoritarian and susceptible to political agendas.
Some proponents see DI as a means to promote social justice. All students—including poor and otherwise disadvantaged students—deserve to learn. Learning to read well increases the likelihood of high school graduation and the degree and quality of future employment. Similarly, it decreases the likelihood of incarceration and other socially undesirable outcomes.
Classroom Learning: An Encyclopedia. New York: Macmillan.
Behavioral script
In the behaviorism approach to psychology, behavioral scripts are a sequence of expected behaviors for a given situation. For example, when an individual enters a restaurant they choose a table, order, wait, eat, pay the bill, and leave. People continually follow scripts which are acquired through...
.
On the premise that all students can learn and all teachers successfully teach if given effective training in specific techniques, teachers may be evaluated based on measurable student learning. A frequent statement in discussions of the methodology is "If the student doesn't learn, the teacher hasn't taught." (Tarver, 1999)
Direct Instruction was originally developed in the 1960s by Siegfried Engelmann and the late Wesley C. Becker of the University of Oregon
University of Oregon
-Colleges and schools:The University of Oregon is organized into eight schools and colleges—six professional schools and colleges, an Arts and Sciences College and an Honors College.- School of Architecture and Allied Arts :...
, and it was the subject of an extensive federally-funded research and implementation program called Project Follow Through
Project Follow Through
Project Follow Through was the largest and most expensive experiment in education funded by the U.S. federal government that has ever been conducted. The most extensive evaluation of Follow Through data covers the years 1968-1977; however, the program continued to receive funding from the...
.
It is sometimes used in resource room
Resource room
A resource room is a separate special education classroom in a regular school where some students with educational disabilities, such as specific learning disabilities, receive direct, specialized instruction and academic remediation and assistance with homework and related assignments as...
programs in schools.
History
Although they came from different backgrounds–Engelmann was a preschool teacher and Becker was a trained researcher from the University of Illinois–both sought to identify teaching methods that would accelerate the progress of historically disadvantaged elementary schoolElementary school
An elementary school or primary school is an institution where children receive the first stage of compulsory education known as elementary or primary education. Elementary school is the preferred term in some countries, particularly those in North America, where the terms grade school and grammar...
students. DI was an attempt to merge rule learning with the principles of applied behavior analysis
Applied Behavior Analysis
Applied behavior analysis is a science that involves using modern behavioral learning theory to modify behaviors. Behavior analysts reject the use of hypothetical constructs and focus on the observable relationship of behavior to the environment...
. In this light, it can be considered a highly successful combination
The DISTAR
DISTAR
DISTAR is an acronym for Direct Instruction System for Teaching Arithmetic and Reading, a trademarked program of SRA/McGraw-Hill, a commercial publishing company. The program is used particularly for historically disadvantaged and/or at-risk students...
(Direct Instruction System for Teaching Arithmetic and Reading) program gained prominence during Project Follow Through (1967–1995), the largest federally funded experiment in public education.
Features of DI include:
- Explicit, systematic instruction based on scripted lesson plans.
- Ability groupingAbility groupingAbility grouping is the educational practice of grouping students by academic potential or past achievement.Ability groups are usually small, informal groups formed within a single classroom. Assignment to an ability group is often short-term , and varies by subject...
. Students are grouped and re-grouped based on their rate of progress through the program. - Emphasis on pace and efficiency of instruction. DI programs are meant to accelerate student progress; therefore, lessons are designed to bring students to mastery as quickly as possible.
- Frequent assessment. Curriculum-based assessments help place students in ability groups and identify students who require additional intervention.
- Embedded professional development/coaching. DI programs may be implemented as stand-alone interventions or as part of a schoolwide reform effort. In both instances, the program developers recommend careful monitoring and coaching of the program in order to ensure a high fidelity of implementation.
Direct instruction has been effectively delivered through peers to students with learning disabilities.
Peer delivery offers teachers new ways to effectively use the curriculum. The approach has also been examined as an effective model to assist students in a resource room
Resource room
A resource room is a separate special education classroom in a regular school where some students with educational disabilities, such as specific learning disabilities, receive direct, specialized instruction and academic remediation and assistance with homework and related assignments as...
with homework completion, bolster executive functioning skills and improve teacher efficiency.
In the past decade Direct Instruction curricula, especially Language for Learning, have become popular tools for teaching language arts skills to children with developmental disabilities such as autism
Autism
Autism is a disorder of neural development characterized by impaired social interaction and communication, and by restricted and repetitive behavior. These signs all begin before a child is three years old. Autism affects information processing in the brain by altering how nerve cells and their...
and other Pervasive Developmental Disorders. Knowledge of Direct Instruction methods is mandatory for any applicant aspiring to become a Board Certified Behavior Analyst (BCBA). Board certification in behavior analysis is an attempt to set quality levels for behavior analytic practice (see Professional practice of behavior analysis
Professional practice of behavior analysis
The professional practice of behavior analysis is one domain of behavior analysis: others being behaviorism, experimental analysis of behavior and applied behavior analysis...
).
Effectiveness
Debates about the efficacy of DI have raged since before the final results of Project Follow ThroughProject Follow Through
Project Follow Through was the largest and most expensive experiment in education funded by the U.S. federal government that has ever been conducted. The most extensive evaluation of Follow Through data covers the years 1968-1977; however, the program continued to receive funding from the...
were published; however, there is substantial empirical research supporting its effectiveness. A meta-analysis published by Adams & Engelmann (1996), a chief architect of the DI program, finds a "mean effect size average per study...(as) more than .75, which confirms that the overall effect is substantial."
In some special education programs it is used in a resource room
Resource room
A resource room is a separate special education classroom in a regular school where some students with educational disabilities, such as specific learning disabilities, receive direct, specialized instruction and academic remediation and assistance with homework and related assignments as...
with small groups of students. Some research has shown benefit with this model.
However, one three-year study of methods of teaching reading showed that highly scripted, teacher-directed methods of teaching reading were not as effective as traditional methods that allowed a more flexible approach. The study, headed by Randall Ryder, Professor of Curriculum and Instruction in the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee School of Education, also found that teachers felt the most highly scripted method, known as Direct Instruction (DI), should be used in limited situations, not as the primary method of teaching students to read. (Ryder, et al., 2006) Urban teachers in particular expressed great concern over the DI's lack of sensitivity to issues of poverty
Poverty
Poverty is the lack of a certain amount of material possessions or money. Absolute poverty or destitution is inability to afford basic human needs, which commonly includes clean and fresh water, nutrition, health care, education, clothing and shelter. About 1.7 billion people are estimated to live...
, culture
Culture
Culture is a term that has many different inter-related meanings. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions...
and race. (Ryder et al., 2006).
The findings from Ryder's study are not constant with the findings of more than twenty other studies. (See the critique of Ryder's study noting the inherent methodological flaws.) Direct Instruction is widely and successfully used with students from every population segment (with regard to poverty, culture, and race). In Project Follow Through
Project Follow Through
Project Follow Through was the largest and most expensive experiment in education funded by the U.S. federal government that has ever been conducted. The most extensive evaluation of Follow Through data covers the years 1968-1977; however, the program continued to receive funding from the...
, the DI model was ranked first in achievement for poor students, students who were not poor, urban students, rural students, African American
African American
African Americans are citizens or residents of the United States who have at least partial ancestry from any of the native populations of Sub-Saharan Africa and are the direct descendants of enslaved Africans within the boundaries of the present United States...
students, Hispanic
Hispanic
Hispanic is a term that originally denoted a relationship to Hispania, which is to say the Iberian Peninsula: Andorra, Gibraltar, Portugal and Spain. During the Modern Era, Hispanic sometimes takes on a more limited meaning, particularly in the United States, where the term means a person of ...
students, and Native American
Native Americans in the United States
Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples in North America within the boundaries of the present-day continental United States, parts of Alaska, and the island state of Hawaii. They are composed of numerous, distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of which survive as...
students. Today, many of the Bureau of Indian Affair's highest-performing schools use Direct Instruction materials. See Chief Leschi School
Chief Leschi School
Chief Leschi School is a Native American tribal school located in the Puyallup Valley near Mount Rainier in Washington. It is a facility which is intended to be a model for Native American Education...
and Nay Ah Shing School. The Baltimore Curriculum Project has many schools with Free and Reduced Lunch Rates above 75% serving student populations that are more than 90% African American. These schools have shown strong achievement gains using Direct Instruction (Rebar, 2007).
Meta-analysis of 85 single-subject design studies comparing direct instruction to other teaching strategies found the effects to be substantial for students with learning disabilities; however, when qualified by IQ and reading levels strategy instruction (SI) had better effects for the high IQ group. For the low-IQ discrepancy groups higher effect sizes were yielded for a Combined DI and SI Model when compared to all competing models. With the exception of handwriting DI's effects were all above .8 (i.e., reading and mathematics).
John Hattie's Visible Learning: A Synthesis of Over 800 Meta-Analyses Relating to Achievement (2009) summarizes the results of four meta-analyses that examined Direct Instruction. These analyses incorporated 304 studies of over 42,000 students. Across all of these students, the average affect size was .59 and was significantly larger than those of any other curriculum Hattie studied.
Direct Instruction is recognized as one of two effective models of comprehensive school reform (see the federal government's site on Comprehensive School Reform) (See http://www.csrq.org/CSRQreportselementaryschoolreport.asp) and in many cases, can be integrated into a tiered model system to address students will developing problems. The findings from Project Follow Through
Project Follow Through
Project Follow Through was the largest and most expensive experiment in education funded by the U.S. federal government that has ever been conducted. The most extensive evaluation of Follow Through data covers the years 1968-1977; however, the program continued to receive funding from the...
, conducted in a variety of communities throughout the United States, conclude that Direct Instruction is the most effective model for teaching academic skills and for affective outcomes (e.g., self-esteem
Self-esteem
Self-esteem is a term in psychology to reflect a person's overall evaluation or appraisal of his or her own worth. Self-esteem encompasses beliefs and emotions such as triumph, despair, pride and shame: some would distinguish how 'the self-concept is what we think about the self; self-esteem, the...
of children). Recent large scale studies (1997–2003), such as the Baltimore Curriculum Project, show that it is possible to help schools that are in the lowest twenty percent with respect to academic achievement steadily improve until they are performing well above average. In some cases, school achievement improved from the 16th percentile to above the 90th percentile (Rebar, 2007).
The president of the National Science Teachers Association
National Science Teachers Association
The National Science Teachers Association , founded in 1944 and headquartered in Arlington, Virginia, is an association of science teachers in the United States and is the largest organization of science teachers worldwide...
(NSTA), Anne Tweed, also questions whether direct instruction is the most effective science teaching strategy. In the December 15, 2004 NSTA Reports she concluded that a variety of teaching strategies, including those that are inquiry-based (see inquiry-based instruction
Inquiry-based instruction
Inquiry-based instruction is a teaching technique in which teachers create situations in which students are to solve problems. Lessons are designed so that students make connections to previous knowledge, bring their own questions to learning, investigate to satisfy their own questions and design...
) as well as direct instruction techniques are what is best for students (Tweed, 2004).
Currently, Direct Instruction is one of the few curriculums that have been scientifically validated to be effective for use in the Response to Intervention model, which has been proposed as an alternative method of diagnosing learning disabilities in schools.
Philosophical critiques
Some critics of DI see it as a betrayal of the humanisticHumanism
Humanism is an approach in study, philosophy, world view or practice that focuses on human values and concerns. In philosophy and social science, humanism is a perspective which affirms some notion of human nature, and is contrasted with anti-humanism....
, egalitarian foundations of public education, or as a "canned" or "teacher proof" curriculum deliverable via unskilled teachers. DI has been criticized for being so inflexible that it "handcuffs" teachers. More radical critics argue that the entire history of public education
Public education
State schools, also known in the United States and Canada as public schools,In much of the Commonwealth, including Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and the United Kingdom, the terms 'public education', 'public school' and 'independent school' are used for private schools, that is, schools...
in the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
has been a political one, designed primarily to domesticate lower socio-economic groups, and that DI is in keeping with this broader, historical purpose. Libertarian
Libertarianism
Libertarianism, in the strictest sense, is the political philosophy that holds individual liberty as the basic moral principle of society. In the broadest sense, it is any political philosophy which approximates this view...
and traditional conservative critics see the approach as too authoritarian and susceptible to political agendas.
Some proponents see DI as a means to promote social justice. All students—including poor and otherwise disadvantaged students—deserve to learn. Learning to read well increases the likelihood of high school graduation and the degree and quality of future employment. Similarly, it decreases the likelihood of incarceration and other socially undesirable outcomes.
External links
- SRA/McGraw-Hill Web site
- SIGNALS: the online community for direct instruction educators
- National Institute for Direct Instruction
- Association for Direct Instruction
- Educational Resources web site: A Professional Staff Development Company Specializing in Direct Instruction Implementations
- What the Data Really Show: Direct Instruction Really Works!
- Direct Instruction Resources
- Zig Engelmann
- Success for All Foundation website
- Article on scripted education, "Do Scripted Lessons Work or Not" by Sarah Colt
- Rubric for Identifying Authentic Direct Instruction Programs
See Also
Crawford, D., Engelmann, K.E., & Engelmann, S.E. (2008). Direct Instruction. In E.M. Anderman & L.H. Anderman (Eds.) Psychology ofClassroom Learning: An Encyclopedia. New York: Macmillan.