Directorium Inquisitorum
Encyclopedia
The Directorium Inquisitorum is Nicholas Eymerich
's most prominent and enduring work, which he had composed as early as 1376. Eymerich had written an earlier treatise on sorcery
, perhaps as early as 1359, which he extensively reworked into the Directorium Inqusitorum The Directorium Inquisitorum defined witchcraft
, and described means for discovering witches. In compiling the book, Eymerich used many of the magic texts he had previously confiscated from accused sorcerers. It can also be considered as an assessment of a century and half of official Inquisition in the conquered "albigensian" country.
of images
, fumigating the head of a dead person
, casting salt on fire, burning bodies of animals and birds, conjuring
spirits, invoking unfamiliar names, mixing names of angel
s and demon
s, and chiromancy
.
In the Directorium Inquisitorum, Eymerich considers sorcery to be a form of heresy
, an important definition as the Inquisition's mandate was the suppression of heresy. The idea was not unique to Eymerich, however, it had been developing since the late thirteenth century, when Pope Alexander IV
first gave inquisitors jurisdiction over sorcerers. This was further codified by Pope Boniface VIII
and Pope John XXII
. And by 1320 it was common to see discussions of sorcery in inquisitors' manuals. Writings by Bernard Gui
and Ugolino Zanchini contain two such discussions. Eymerich's contribution was to divide sorcery into three categories, with considerable reference given to the Bible
and the writings of notable Christian theologians
such as Augustine of Hippo
and Thomas Aquinas
.
According to Eymerich, the first, and most serious form of sorcerous heretic was the one who offered latria
(the worship due to God alone) to demons. Such activities included making sacrifice
s, praying
, and lighting candles or incense to devils.
His second category was the heretic who offered dulia (the veneration given to Saint
s). Such activities included mentioning devils in litany
(often alongside the names of Saints or angels) and asking for their intercession before God. He refers specifically to the "Saracen
s" (Muslim
s) as practicing this form of heresy in their veneration for Muhammad.
The third category of sorcerous heresy was those who sought the aid of a demon, such as for divination
. He quotes Pope Innocent V
in saying that in order to receive aid from a demon, a person must enter into some form of pact
with the demon. Eymerich then extrapolates on this postulate to demonstrate that any agreement with a demon is a heresy. Eymerich was among the first to condemn all forms of demonic conjuration as heresy. Previously, the common belief had been that even a saint might make a demonic pact as exemplified by the story of Saint Theophilus
, who made a pact with the devil to gain an ecclesiastical position.
In addition to describing common magical practices, Eymerich also described means of extracting a confession which included primitive psychological manipulation
as well as outright torture
. Regarding torture, Eymerich said, "Quaestiones sunt fallaces et inefficaces" meaning, "Torture is deceptive and ineffectual." However, Eymerich was the first inquisitor to get around the Church
's prohibition against torturing a subject twice. He interpreted the directive very liberally, permitting a separate instance of torture for a separate charge of heresy.
until into the seventeenth century. It saw numerous printings, including a run at Barcelona
in 1503 and one in Rome in 1578. These printings are now highly valuable original sources. In addition, the Directorium Inquisitorum was one of the primary forerunners of the better known Malleus Maleficarum
.
Nicholas Eymerich
Nicholas Eymerich was a Roman Catholic theologian and Inquisitor General of the Inquisition of the Crown of Aragon in the later half of the 14th century. He is best known for authoring the Directorium Inquisitorum....
's most prominent and enduring work, which he had composed as early as 1376. Eymerich had written an earlier treatise on sorcery
Magic (paranormal)
Magic is the claimed art of manipulating aspects of reality either by supernatural means or through knowledge of occult laws unknown to science. It is in contrast to science, in that science does not accept anything not subject to either direct or indirect observation, and subject to logical...
, perhaps as early as 1359, which he extensively reworked into the Directorium Inqusitorum The Directorium Inquisitorum defined witchcraft
Witchcraft
Witchcraft, in historical, anthropological, religious, and mythological contexts, is the alleged use of supernatural or magical powers. A witch is a practitioner of witchcraft...
, and described means for discovering witches. In compiling the book, Eymerich used many of the magic texts he had previously confiscated from accused sorcerers. It can also be considered as an assessment of a century and half of official Inquisition in the conquered "albigensian" country.
Subject matter
He describes various forbidden magical practices including the baptismBaptism
In Christianity, baptism is for the majority the rite of admission , almost invariably with the use of water, into the Christian Church generally and also membership of a particular church tradition...
of images
Icon
An icon is a religious work of art, most commonly a painting, from Eastern Christianity and in certain Eastern Catholic churches...
, fumigating the head of a dead person
Necromancy
Necromancy is a claimed form of magic that involves communication with the deceased, either by summoning their spirit in the form of an apparition or raising them bodily, for the purpose of divination, imparting the ability to foretell future events or discover hidden knowledge...
, casting salt on fire, burning bodies of animals and birds, conjuring
Conjuration
Conjuration is used in many video games, mainly RPGs, where it is usually referred to as summoning.* A notable example is the Final Fantasy franchise which incorporates summoning of monsters to fight alongside the characters....
spirits, invoking unfamiliar names, mixing names of angel
Angel
Angels are mythical beings often depicted as messengers of God in the Hebrew and Christian Bibles along with the Quran. The English word angel is derived from the Greek ἄγγελος, a translation of in the Hebrew Bible ; a similar term, ملائكة , is used in the Qur'an...
s and demon
Demon
call - 1347 531 7769 for more infoIn Ancient Near Eastern religions as well as in the Abrahamic traditions, including ancient and medieval Christian demonology, a demon is considered an "unclean spirit" which may cause demonic possession, to be addressed with an act of exorcism...
s, and chiromancy
Chiromancy
Palmistry or chiromancy , is the art of characterization and foretelling the future through the study of the palm, also known as palm reading, or chirology. The practice is found all over the world, with numerous cultural variations...
.
In the Directorium Inquisitorum, Eymerich considers sorcery to be a form of heresy
Heresy
Heresy is a controversial or novel change to a system of beliefs, especially a religion, that conflicts with established dogma. It is distinct from apostasy, which is the formal denunciation of one's religion, principles or cause, and blasphemy, which is irreverence toward religion...
, an important definition as the Inquisition's mandate was the suppression of heresy. The idea was not unique to Eymerich, however, it had been developing since the late thirteenth century, when Pope Alexander IV
Pope Alexander IV
Pope Alexander IV was Pope from 1254 until his death.Born as Rinaldo di Jenne, in Jenne , he was, on his mother's side, a member of the de' Conti di Segni family, the counts of Segni, like Pope Innocent III and Pope Gregory IX...
first gave inquisitors jurisdiction over sorcerers. This was further codified by Pope Boniface VIII
Pope Boniface VIII
Pope Boniface VIII , born Benedetto Gaetani, was Pope of the Catholic Church from 1294 to 1303. Today, Boniface VIII is probably best remembered for his feuds with Dante, who placed him in the Eighth circle of Hell in his Divina Commedia, among the Simonists.- Biography :Gaetani was born in 1235 in...
and Pope John XXII
Pope John XXII
Pope John XXII , born Jacques Duèze , was pope from 1316 to 1334. He was the second Pope of the Avignon Papacy , elected by a conclave in Lyon assembled by Philip V of France...
. And by 1320 it was common to see discussions of sorcery in inquisitors' manuals. Writings by Bernard Gui
Bernard Gui
Bernard Gui , also known as Bernardo Gui or Bernardus Guidonis, was an inquisitor of the Dominican Order in the Late Middle Ages during the Medieval Inquisition, Bishop of Lodève, and one of the most prolific writers of the Middle Ages...
and Ugolino Zanchini contain two such discussions. Eymerich's contribution was to divide sorcery into three categories, with considerable reference given to the Bible
Bible
The Bible refers to any one of the collections of the primary religious texts of Judaism and Christianity. There is no common version of the Bible, as the individual books , their contents and their order vary among denominations...
and the writings of notable Christian theologians
Christian theology
- Divisions of Christian theology :There are many methods of categorizing different approaches to Christian theology. For a historical analysis, see the main article on the History of Christian theology.- Sub-disciplines :...
such as Augustine of Hippo
Augustine of Hippo
Augustine of Hippo , also known as Augustine, St. Augustine, St. Austin, St. Augoustinos, Blessed Augustine, or St. Augustine the Blessed, was Bishop of Hippo Regius . He was a Latin-speaking philosopher and theologian who lived in the Roman Africa Province...
and Thomas Aquinas
Thomas Aquinas
Thomas Aquinas, O.P. , also Thomas of Aquin or Aquino, was an Italian Dominican priest of the Catholic Church, and an immensely influential philosopher and theologian in the tradition of scholasticism, known as Doctor Angelicus, Doctor Communis, or Doctor Universalis...
.
According to Eymerich, the first, and most serious form of sorcerous heretic was the one who offered latria
Latria
Latrīa is a Latin term used in Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic theology to mean adoration, a reverence directed only to the Holy Trinity. Latria carries an emphasis on the internal form of worship, rather than external ceremonies.-Catholic teachings:In Catholic teachings, latria also applies...
(the worship due to God alone) to demons. Such activities included making sacrifice
Sacrifice
Sacrifice is the offering of food, objects or the lives of animals or people to God or the gods as an act of propitiation or worship.While sacrifice often implies ritual killing, the term offering can be used for bloodless sacrifices of cereal food or artifacts...
s, praying
Prayer
Prayer is a form of religious practice that seeks to activate a volitional rapport to a deity through deliberate practice. Prayer may be either individual or communal and take place in public or in private. It may involve the use of words or song. When language is used, prayer may take the form of...
, and lighting candles or incense to devils.
His second category was the heretic who offered dulia (the veneration given to Saint
Saint
A saint is a holy person. In various religions, saints are people who are believed to have exceptional holiness.In Christian usage, "saint" refers to any believer who is "in Christ", and in whom Christ dwells, whether in heaven or in earth...
s). Such activities included mentioning devils in litany
Litany
A litany, in Christian worship and some forms of Jewish worship, is a form of prayer used in services and processions, and consisting of a number of petitions...
(often alongside the names of Saints or angels) and asking for their intercession before God. He refers specifically to the "Saracen
Saracen
Saracen was a term used by the ancient Romans to refer to a people who lived in desert areas in and around the Roman province of Arabia, and who were distinguished from Arabs. In Europe during the Middle Ages the term was expanded to include Arabs, and then all who professed the religion of Islam...
s" (Muslim
Muslim
A Muslim, also spelled Moslem, is an adherent of Islam, a monotheistic, Abrahamic religion based on the Quran, which Muslims consider the verbatim word of God as revealed to prophet Muhammad. "Muslim" is the Arabic term for "submitter" .Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable...
s) as practicing this form of heresy in their veneration for Muhammad.
The third category of sorcerous heresy was those who sought the aid of a demon, such as for divination
Divination
Divination is the attempt to gain insight into a question or situation by way of an occultic standardized process or ritual...
. He quotes Pope Innocent V
Pope Innocent V
Pope Blessed Innocent V , born Pierre de Tarentaise, was Pope from January 21 to June 22, 1276.He was born around 1225 near Moûtiers in the Tarentaise region of the County of Savoy, then part of the Kingdom of Arles in the Holy Roman Empire, but now in southeastern France...
in saying that in order to receive aid from a demon, a person must enter into some form of pact
Deal with the Devil
Deal With The Devil is the fifth studio album by the American heavy metal band Lizzy Borden released in 2000 .A return to form, featuring a cover by Todd McFarlane.2 covers were recorded...
with the demon. Eymerich then extrapolates on this postulate to demonstrate that any agreement with a demon is a heresy. Eymerich was among the first to condemn all forms of demonic conjuration as heresy. Previously, the common belief had been that even a saint might make a demonic pact as exemplified by the story of Saint Theophilus
Theophilus of Adana
Saint Theophilus the Penitent or Theophilus of Adana was a cleric in the sixth century Church who is said to have made a deal with the devil to gain an ecclesiastical position. His story is significant as it is the oldest story of a pact with the Devil and was an inspiration for the Faust legend...
, who made a pact with the devil to gain an ecclesiastical position.
In addition to describing common magical practices, Eymerich also described means of extracting a confession which included primitive psychological manipulation
Psychological manipulation
Psychological manipulation is a type of social influence that aims to change the perception or behavior of others through underhanded, deceptive, or even abusive tactics. By advancing the interests of the manipulator, often at the other's expense, such methods could be considered exploitative,...
as well as outright torture
Torture
Torture is the act of inflicting severe pain as a means of punishment, revenge, forcing information or a confession, or simply as an act of cruelty. Throughout history, torture has often been used as a method of political re-education, interrogation, punishment, and coercion...
. Regarding torture, Eymerich said, "Quaestiones sunt fallaces et inefficaces" meaning, "Torture is deceptive and ineffectual." However, Eymerich was the first inquisitor to get around the Church
Roman Catholic Church
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the world's largest Christian church, with over a billion members. Led by the Pope, it defines its mission as spreading the gospel of Jesus Christ, administering the sacraments and exercising charity...
's prohibition against torturing a subject twice. He interpreted the directive very liberally, permitting a separate instance of torture for a separate charge of heresy.
Legacy
The Directorium Inquisitorum was to become the definitive handbook of procedure for the Spanish InquisitionSpanish Inquisition
The Tribunal of the Holy Office of the Inquisition , commonly known as the Spanish Inquisition , was a tribunal established in 1480 by Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile. It was intended to maintain Catholic orthodoxy in their kingdoms, and to replace the Medieval...
until into the seventeenth century. It saw numerous printings, including a run at Barcelona
Barcelona
Barcelona is the second largest city in Spain after Madrid, and the capital of Catalonia, with a population of 1,621,537 within its administrative limits on a land area of...
in 1503 and one in Rome in 1578. These printings are now highly valuable original sources. In addition, the Directorium Inquisitorum was one of the primary forerunners of the better known Malleus Maleficarum
Malleus Maleficarum
The Malleus Maleficarum is an infamous treatise on witches, written in 1486 by Heinrich Kramer, an Inquisitor of the Catholic Church, and was first published in Germany in 1487...
.