Discourse marker
Encyclopedia
In linguistics
, a discourse marker is a word
or phrase
that is relatively syntax
-independent and does not change the meaning of the sentence, and has a somewhat empty meaning. Examples of discourse markers include the particles
"oh", "well", "now", "then", "you know", and "I mean", and the connective
s "so", "because", "and", "but", and "or".
In Practical English Usage Michael Swan defines a 'discourse marker' as 'a word or expression which shows the connection between what is being said and the wider context'. For him, it is something that a) connects a sentence to what comes before or after, or b) indicates a speaker's attitude to what he is saying. He gives three examples: on the other hand; frankly; as a matter of fact.
Traditionally, some of the words or phrases that were considered discourse markers were treated as "fillers
" or "expletive
s": words or phrases that had no function at all. Now they are assigned functions in different levels of analysis: topic changes, reformulations, discourse planning, stressing, hedging
, or backchanneling. Those functions can be classified into three broad groups: (a) relationships among (parts of) utterances; (b) relationships between the speaker and the message, and (c) relationships between speaker and hearer. An example of the latter is the Yiddish involvement discourse marker nu, also used in Modern Hebrew
and other languages, often to convey impatience or to urge the hearer to act (cf. German
cognate nun, meaning "now" in the sense of "at the moment under discussion").
Data over time show that discourse markers often come from different word classes, such as adverbs ("well") or prepositional phrases
("in fact"). The process that leads from a free construction to a discourse marker can be traced back through grammaticalisation
studies and resources.
Common discourse markers used in the English language
include "you know", "actually", "basically", "like", "I mean", and "okay".
Linguistics
Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. Linguistics can be broadly broken into three categories or subfields of study: language form, language meaning, and language in context....
, a discourse marker is a word
Word
In language, a word is the smallest free form that may be uttered in isolation with semantic or pragmatic content . This contrasts with a morpheme, which is the smallest unit of meaning but will not necessarily stand on its own...
or phrase
Phrase
In everyday speech, a phrase may refer to any group of words. In linguistics, a phrase is a group of words which form a constituent and so function as a single unit in the syntax of a sentence. A phrase is lower on the grammatical hierarchy than a clause....
that is relatively syntax
Syntax
In linguistics, syntax is the study of the principles and rules for constructing phrases and sentences in natural languages....
-independent and does not change the meaning of the sentence, and has a somewhat empty meaning. Examples of discourse markers include the particles
Grammatical particle
In grammar, a particle is a function word that does not belong to any of the inflected grammatical word classes . It is a catch-all term for a heterogeneous set of words and terms that lack a precise lexical definition...
"oh", "well", "now", "then", "you know", and "I mean", and the connective
Connective
Connective may be referring to:* Bains::connective* Logical connective* Connective tissue* Discourse connective, in linguistics, a word or phrase like "therefore" or "in other words"....
s "so", "because", "and", "but", and "or".
In Practical English Usage Michael Swan defines a 'discourse marker' as 'a word or expression which shows the connection between what is being said and the wider context'. For him, it is something that a) connects a sentence to what comes before or after, or b) indicates a speaker's attitude to what he is saying. He gives three examples: on the other hand; frankly; as a matter of fact.
Traditionally, some of the words or phrases that were considered discourse markers were treated as "fillers
Filler (linguistics)
In linguistics, a filler is a sound or word that is spoken in conversation by one participant to signal to others that he/she has paused to think but is not yet finished speaking. These are not to be confused with placeholder names, such as thingamajig, which refer to objects or people whose names...
" or "expletive
Expletive attributive
Expletive comes from the Latin verb explere, meaning "to fill", via expletivus, "filling out". It was introduced into English in the seventeenth century to refer to various kinds of padding—the padding out of a book with peripheral material, the addition of syllables to a line of poetry for...
s": words or phrases that had no function at all. Now they are assigned functions in different levels of analysis: topic changes, reformulations, discourse planning, stressing, hedging
Hedge (linguistics)
A hedge is a mitigating device used to lessen the impact of an utterance. Typically, they are adjectives or adverbs, but can also consist of clauses...
, or backchanneling. Those functions can be classified into three broad groups: (a) relationships among (parts of) utterances; (b) relationships between the speaker and the message, and (c) relationships between speaker and hearer. An example of the latter is the Yiddish involvement discourse marker nu, also used in Modern Hebrew
Modern Hebrew
Modern Hebrew , also known as Israeli Hebrew or Modern Israeli Hebrew, is the language spoken in Israel and in some Jewish communities worldwide, from the early 20th century to the present....
and other languages, often to convey impatience or to urge the hearer to act (cf. German
German language
German is a West Germanic language, related to and classified alongside English and Dutch. With an estimated 90 – 98 million native speakers, German is one of the world's major languages and is the most widely-spoken first language in the European Union....
cognate nun, meaning "now" in the sense of "at the moment under discussion").
Data over time show that discourse markers often come from different word classes, such as adverbs ("well") or prepositional phrases
Adpositional phrase
An adpositional phrase is a linguistics term defining a syntactic category that includes prepositional phrases and postpositional phrases. Adpositional phrases contain an adposition in the head position and usually a complement such as a noun phrase...
("in fact"). The process that leads from a free construction to a discourse marker can be traced back through grammaticalisation
Grammaticalisation
In linguistics, grammaticalization is a process by which words representing objects and actions transform through sound change and language migration to become grammatical objects...
studies and resources.
Common discourse markers used in the English language
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
include "you know", "actually", "basically", "like", "I mean", and "okay".
See also
- Discourse connective
- Discourse particleDiscourse particleIn linguistics, a discourse particle is a lexeme or particle which has no direct semantic meaning in the context of a sentence, having rather a pragmatic function: it serves to indicate the speaker's attitude, or to structure their relationship to other participants in a conversation...
- FillerFiller (linguistics)In linguistics, a filler is a sound or word that is spoken in conversation by one participant to signal to others that he/she has paused to think but is not yet finished speaking. These are not to be confused with placeholder names, such as thingamajig, which refer to objects or people whose names...
- Speech disfluency
- Tag questionTag questionA question tag or tag question is a grammatical structure in which a declarative statement or an imperative is turned into a question by adding an interrogative fragment . For example, in the sentence "You're John, aren't you?", the statement "You're John" is turned into a question by the tag...