Dissimilar air combat training
Encyclopedia
Dissimilar air combat training (DACT) was introduced as a formal part of US air combat training after disappointing aerial combat exchange rates in the Vietnam War
.
Traditionally, pilots would undertake air combat training against similar aircraft. For example, pilots of F-8s
would seldom train against F-4 Phantom II
s, and almost never against A-4 Skyhawk
s and never as part of a formal syllabus. From 1965 to 1968, US pilots found themselves over the skies of North Vietnam pitted against smaller, more nimble subsonic Soviet MiG-17 and the supersonic MiG-21. US pilots in USAF F-105 Thunderchiefs were barely able to exceed parity, and pilots in Phantoms and Crusaders were not able to achieve the hugely lopsided win/loss ratio achieved over Korea and in World War II. In fact, Air Combat Maneuvering (ACM) was not practiced by all fighter squadrons for a variety of reasons.
The USAF had deemphasized ACM since most air combat doctrine since the late 1950s, centered around delivering nuclear weapons over Europe, or firing missiles at beyond visual range at bombers, not daylight dogfighting, which was thought to be obsolete in the missile age. The primary US fighter used against North Vietnamese MiGs, the F-4 Phantom, did not even have an internal gun. Yet, US pilots were finding themselves hard-pressed to prevail over the nimble VPAF MiGs and by late 1966, they had grown to be a real threat to US aircraft operating over the North.
Even more vexing were Rules of engagement
(ROE) that did not even permit beyond-visual-range
(BVR) firing of missiles. Radar-guided AIM-7 Sparrow
s experienced high failure rates, and the short range Sidewinder was ineffective in many dogfighting maneuvering situations.
It was found that Phantom training against other Phantoms did not reflect the reality of a target that was smaller, smokeless, and more agile. Ever since the success of the American Volunteer Group
(Flying Tigers
), aerial tacticians have advocated exploiting known differences in aircraft to maximize one's own advantages while minimizing the disadvantages of one's own platform, thus neutralizing the superior maneuverability and climbing speed of, for example, a Zero
compared to the rugged, fast-diving and powerfully armed P-40 Tomahawk. However, US pilots found themselves the victims of VPAF MiG-21s using Chennault's Flying Tiger tactics of hit and run attacks successfully against them.
In 1968, the Navy took a hard look at its air-to-air problems over North Vietnam and tasked Captain Frank Ault
to come up with recommendations to improve the situation. His report became known as the Ault Report
and it resulted in establishment of TOPGUN and incorporation of DACT into the syllabus. The United States Navy Fighter Weapons School
adopted the nimble subsonic A-4 Skyhawk
to simulate subsonic Soviet fighters, while the F-5E Tiger
simulated the supersonic MiG-21 Fishbed fighter. Both the Skyhawk and Tiger were used in the 1986 film Top Gun
. After aerial combat resumed again in 1972 over North Vietnam, the Navy had numerous TOPGUN graduates who were ready to take on the VPAF MiG-17, MiG-19 and MiG-21 pilots that had also been training and were prepared for the resumption of hostilities. The Navy's exchange ratio soared to over 20:1 before loss of a Marine Phantom brought it to 12.5:1 by 1973; an unqualified testament to the value of the TOPGUN approach and DACT. The USAF did not improve its exchange ratio at all in the same timeframe and hurriedly began to adopt DACT even inviting Navy F-8 Crusader
s to visit a base in Thailand in 1972 to conduct DACT with the F-4 Phantoms based there.
The A-4 Skyhawk
has since been replaced by the T-45 Goshawk
, a navalized British Hawk trainer. F-16s have been used to simulate later generation Soviet fighters such as the MiG-29
. The now-retired F-14 Tomcat
was also used in various paint schemes to simulate Iranian F-14s, as well as the large Su-27 Flanker
. The Air Force has reportedly also used actual captured or purchased Soviet fighters on occasion.
Vietnam War
The Vietnam War was a Cold War-era military conflict that occurred in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. This war followed the First Indochina War and was fought between North Vietnam, supported by its communist allies, and the government of...
.
Traditionally, pilots would undertake air combat training against similar aircraft. For example, pilots of F-8s
F-8 Crusader
The Vought F-8 Crusader was a single-engine, supersonic, carrier-based air superiority jet aircraft built by Vought for the United States Navy and the U.S. Marine Corps, replacing the Vought F7U Cutlass...
would seldom train against F-4 Phantom II
F-4 Phantom II
The McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II is a tandem two-seat, twin-engined, all-weather, long-range supersonic jet interceptor fighter/fighter-bomber originally developed for the United States Navy by McDonnell Aircraft. It first entered service in 1960 with the U.S. Navy. Proving highly adaptable,...
s, and almost never against A-4 Skyhawk
A-4 Skyhawk
The Douglas A-4 Skyhawk is a carrier-capable ground-attack aircraft designed for the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps. The delta winged, single-engined Skyhawk was designed and produced by Douglas Aircraft Company, and later McDonnell Douglas. It was originally designated the A4D...
s and never as part of a formal syllabus. From 1965 to 1968, US pilots found themselves over the skies of North Vietnam pitted against smaller, more nimble subsonic Soviet MiG-17 and the supersonic MiG-21. US pilots in USAF F-105 Thunderchiefs were barely able to exceed parity, and pilots in Phantoms and Crusaders were not able to achieve the hugely lopsided win/loss ratio achieved over Korea and in World War II. In fact, Air Combat Maneuvering (ACM) was not practiced by all fighter squadrons for a variety of reasons.
The USAF had deemphasized ACM since most air combat doctrine since the late 1950s, centered around delivering nuclear weapons over Europe, or firing missiles at beyond visual range at bombers, not daylight dogfighting, which was thought to be obsolete in the missile age. The primary US fighter used against North Vietnamese MiGs, the F-4 Phantom, did not even have an internal gun. Yet, US pilots were finding themselves hard-pressed to prevail over the nimble VPAF MiGs and by late 1966, they had grown to be a real threat to US aircraft operating over the North.
Even more vexing were Rules of engagement
Rules of engagement
Rules of Engagement refers to those responses that are permitted in the employment of military personnel during operations or in the course of their duties. These rules of engagement are determined by the legal framework within which these duties are being carried out...
(ROE) that did not even permit beyond-visual-range
Beyond Visual Range missile
A beyond-visual-range missile usually refers to an air-to-air missile that is capable of engaging at ranges beyond . This range has been achieved using dual pulse rocket motors or booster rocket motor and ramjet sustainer motor....
(BVR) firing of missiles. Radar-guided AIM-7 Sparrow
AIM-7 Sparrow
The AIM-7 Sparrow is an American, medium-range semi-active radar homing air-to-air missile operated by the United States Air Force, United States Navy and United States Marine Corps, as well as various allied air forces and navies. Sparrow and its derivatives were the West's principal beyond visual...
s experienced high failure rates, and the short range Sidewinder was ineffective in many dogfighting maneuvering situations.
It was found that Phantom training against other Phantoms did not reflect the reality of a target that was smaller, smokeless, and more agile. Ever since the success of the American Volunteer Group
American Volunteer Group
The American Volunteer Groups were volunteer air units organized by the United States government to aid the Nationalist government of China against Japan in the Second Sino-Japanese War...
(Flying Tigers
Flying Tigers
The 1st American Volunteer Group of the Chinese Air Force in 1941–1942, famously nicknamed the Flying Tigers, was composed of pilots from the United States Army , Navy , and Marine Corps , recruited under presidential sanction and commanded by Claire Lee Chennault. The ground crew and headquarters...
), aerial tacticians have advocated exploiting known differences in aircraft to maximize one's own advantages while minimizing the disadvantages of one's own platform, thus neutralizing the superior maneuverability and climbing speed of, for example, a Zero
A6M Zero
The Mitsubishi A6M Zero was a long-range fighter aircraft operated by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service from 1940 to 1945. The A6M was designated as the , and also designated as the Mitsubishi A6M Rei-sen and Mitsubishi Navy 12-shi Carrier Fighter. The A6M was usually referred to by the...
compared to the rugged, fast-diving and powerfully armed P-40 Tomahawk. However, US pilots found themselves the victims of VPAF MiG-21s using Chennault's Flying Tiger tactics of hit and run attacks successfully against them.
In 1968, the Navy took a hard look at its air-to-air problems over North Vietnam and tasked Captain Frank Ault
Frank Ault
Captain Frank Ault, USN was a United States Naval officer. He is best remembered for the classified study he led in 1968 that led to the creation of the Navy Fighter Weapons School, or TOPGUN...
to come up with recommendations to improve the situation. His report became known as the Ault Report
Ault Report
The "Ault Report", or more formally the Air-to-Air Missile System Capability Review, was a sweeping study of US Navy air-to-air missile performance during the period of 1965 to 1968, conducted by Navy Captain Frank Ault. The study was initiated at the behest of Admiral Tom Moorer, Chief of Naval...
and it resulted in establishment of TOPGUN and incorporation of DACT into the syllabus. The United States Navy Fighter Weapons School
United States Navy Fighter Weapons School
The United States Navy Strike Fighter Tactics Instructor program , more popularly known as TOPGUN, is the modern-day evolution of the United States Navy Fighter Weapons School which was originally established on March 3, 1969 at the former Naval Air Station Miramar in California...
adopted the nimble subsonic A-4 Skyhawk
A-4 Skyhawk
The Douglas A-4 Skyhawk is a carrier-capable ground-attack aircraft designed for the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps. The delta winged, single-engined Skyhawk was designed and produced by Douglas Aircraft Company, and later McDonnell Douglas. It was originally designated the A4D...
to simulate subsonic Soviet fighters, while the F-5E Tiger
F-5 Freedom Fighter
The Northrop F-5A/B Freedom Fighter and the F-5E/F Tiger II are part of a family of widely-used light supersonic fighter aircraft, designed and built by Northrop...
simulated the supersonic MiG-21 Fishbed fighter. Both the Skyhawk and Tiger were used in the 1986 film Top Gun
Top Gun
Top Gun may refer to:* Top Gun is a 1986 film starring Tom Cruise.**Top Gun , soundtrack to the movie**Top Gun , a number of games based on the movie...
. After aerial combat resumed again in 1972 over North Vietnam, the Navy had numerous TOPGUN graduates who were ready to take on the VPAF MiG-17, MiG-19 and MiG-21 pilots that had also been training and were prepared for the resumption of hostilities. The Navy's exchange ratio soared to over 20:1 before loss of a Marine Phantom brought it to 12.5:1 by 1973; an unqualified testament to the value of the TOPGUN approach and DACT. The USAF did not improve its exchange ratio at all in the same timeframe and hurriedly began to adopt DACT even inviting Navy F-8 Crusader
F-8 Crusader
The Vought F-8 Crusader was a single-engine, supersonic, carrier-based air superiority jet aircraft built by Vought for the United States Navy and the U.S. Marine Corps, replacing the Vought F7U Cutlass...
s to visit a base in Thailand in 1972 to conduct DACT with the F-4 Phantoms based there.
The A-4 Skyhawk
A-4 Skyhawk
The Douglas A-4 Skyhawk is a carrier-capable ground-attack aircraft designed for the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps. The delta winged, single-engined Skyhawk was designed and produced by Douglas Aircraft Company, and later McDonnell Douglas. It was originally designated the A4D...
has since been replaced by the T-45 Goshawk
T-45 Goshawk
|-Avionics:Data from naval-technology.com *Smiths Industries, Ltd. AN/USN-2 Standard Attitude Heading and Reference System . Later replaced by the BAE/Marconi AN/ASN-180 Navigation Guidance System ....
, a navalized British Hawk trainer. F-16s have been used to simulate later generation Soviet fighters such as the MiG-29
Mikoyan MiG-29
The Mikoyan MiG-29 is a fourth-generation jet fighter aircraft designed in the Soviet Union for an air superiority role. Developed in the 1970s by the Mikoyan design bureau, it entered service with the Soviet Air Force in 1983, and remains in use by the Russian Air Force as well as in many other...
. The now-retired F-14 Tomcat
F-14 Tomcat
The Grumman F-14 Tomcat is a supersonic, twin-engine, two-seat, variable-sweep wing fighter aircraft. The Tomcat was developed for the United States Navy's Naval Fighter Experimental program following the collapse of the F-111B project...
was also used in various paint schemes to simulate Iranian F-14s, as well as the large Su-27 Flanker
Sukhoi Su-27
The Sukhoi Su-27 is a twin-engine supermanoeuverable fighter aircraft designed by Sukhoi. It was intended as a direct competitor for the large United States fourth generation fighters, with range, heavy armament, sophisticated avionics and high manoeuvrability...
. The Air Force has reportedly also used actual captured or purchased Soviet fighters on occasion.