Divine providence (Judaism)
Encyclopedia
In Judaism, Divine Providence (Hebrew
השגחה פרטית Hashgochoh Protis / Hashgachah Pratit, lit. Divine supervision of the individual) is discussed throughout Rabbinic literature
, by the classical Jewish philosophers
, and by the tradition of Jewish mysticism.
The discussion brings into consideration the Jewish understanding of Nature
, and its reciprocal, the Miraculous
. This analysis thus underpins much of Orthodox Judaism
's world view
, particularly as regards questions of interaction with the natural world.
, but its extent and nature is a matter of dispute. There are, broadly, two views, differing largely as to the frequency with which God intervenes in the natural order. The first view admits a frequency of miracle
s. Here there is a stability of the natural order which nevertheless allows for the interference of God in the regulation of human events, or even in disturbing the natural order on occasion. The second, rationalist view does not deny the occurrence of miracles, but attempts to limit it, and will rationalize the numerous miraculous events related in the Bible and bring them within the sphere of the natural order.
endowed the universe with physical
properties, and sustains the natural order, and that any act of providence involves, by definition, an intrusion into the laws of nature. In the absence of providential interference, cause and effect
governs the affairs of the universe. In Ramban's view, reward and punishment — as well as guidance of the fate of Israel — are the typical expressions of such providence (see Ramban: Torat Hashem Temimah). In this sense there is no difference between God causing it to rain
(as a reward) and His separating the waters of the Red Sea
. Both are the result of Divine intervention.
All events (natural or providential) are the result of the direct will of God, and, as such, the seemingly natural order of the world is an illusion. At the same time, any (obvious) breach in the chain of causality involves a "compromise” in the default cause and effect nature of the universe — providence is thus exercised sparingly, and in a "seemingly natural" manner (Genesis 6:19 ad loc). Thus, whereas the fate of the Jews as a nation is guided by providence, individuals do not enjoy the same providential relationship with the Almighty. Only the righteous and the wicked can expect providential treatment. The fate of more “average” individuals is primarily guided by natural law (Deuteronomy
11:13 ad loc).
Maimonides
("Rambam") is representative of the rationalist school. He holds that the pattern of nature is basically immutable. “This Universe remains perpetually with the same properties with which the Creator has endowed it… none of these will ever be changed except by way of miracle
in some individual instances….” (Guide
2:29). This notwithstanding, Maimonides believes that God rewards and punishes appropriately.
To some extent, Rambam reconciles the two views by defining providence as an essentially natural process. Here individual providence depends on the development of the human mind: that is, the more a man develops his mind the more he is subject to the providence of God. Providence is, in fact, a function of intellectual and spiritual activity: it is the activity, not the person that merits providence. "Divine Providence is connected with Divine intellectual influence, and the same beings which are benefited by the latter so as to become intellectual, and to comprehend things comprehensible to rational beings, are also under the control of Divine Providence, which examines all their deeds in order to reward or punish them." (Guide
3:17).
Further, by defining Providence as function of human activity, Maimonides avoids the problem of how God can be affected by events on Earth, lessening any implication of change within God and the resultant implication of a lack of perfection.; see Divine simplicity
. Maimonides, relatedly, views "reward and punishment" as manifesting in the World to Come as opposed to in this world (see Talmud
, Kiddushin 39b; Pirkei Avot 2:16) — he therefore defines Divine providence as that which facilitates intellectual attainment as opposed to as an instrument of reward and punishment.
. In general, Nachmanides' view is influential in Haredi Judaism
, while Maimonides
' view — in addition to Nachmanides' — underpins much of Modern Orthodox
thought. The difference between the two approaches manifests particularly in the importance assigned to, and attitudes toward, three areas:
Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler
is representative of the Haredi approach. To generalise, Rabbi Dessler (along with the Chazon Ish) teaches that given the illusory "nature of nature", each individual must find their appropriate balance between personal effort (hishtadlus / hishtadlut השתדלות) and trust (bitochon / bitachon ביטחון). "Rav Dessler", relatedly, often repeated the idea that every object and circumstance in the material world should be viewed as a means of serving Hashem (God).
Joseph Soloveitchik
— probably Modern Orthodoxy’s most influential theologian — echoes Maimonides
’ teaching. He writes that “the fundamental of providence is… transformed into a concrete commandment, an obligation incumbent upon man. Man is obliged to broaden the scope and strengthen the intensity of the individual providence that watches over him. Everything is dependent on him; it is all in his hands” (Halakhic Man, p. 128).
of classic, Medieval Jewish Rationalistic Philosophy
arose, exemplified by its leading figure Maimonides
. It sought to bring the tradition in Western Philosophy
of independent thinking from first principles, in support and harmony with Rabbinic theology of the Talmud
. In Rabbinic Judaism, this approach, which had its supporters and detractors, was called Hakirah ("Investigation") to distinguish from other traditions in Jewish thought. Another, parallel tradition of Kabbalah
("Received" Jewish mysticism), expressed a mystical exegesis of Biblical and Rabbinic texts, and a metaphysical
theology. Both became part of the cannon of Rabbinic literature
. The classic figure in Jewish thought, Nachmanides, was one of the early exponents of Kabbalah, though his Bible commentary
avoides using the direct terminology of Kabbalah. As the tradition of Kabbalah developed, it evolved through the successive stages of Medieval Kabbalah, exemplified in the Zohar
, the 16th-century rational synthesis of Cordoveran Kabbalah, the subsequent new paradigm of Cosmic rectification in Lurianic Kabbalah, and the 18th-century popularisation of Jewish mysticism in Hasidism.
The teachings of Hasidic philosophy
sought the inner divinity within the esoteric structures of Kabbalah, by relating them to their internal correspondence in the daily spiritual life of man. It sought to awaken a personal, psychological perception of Godliness in dveikut (mystical joy and cleaving to God). The interpretations of Judaism and Jewish philosophy in Hasidism taught new dimensions of Divine Unity, Omnipresence and individual Divine Providence. In the new teaching of Yisrael Baal Shem Tov, the founder of Hasidism, Divine Providence governs every detail of Creation. He taught that "the movement of a leaf in the wind" is a part of the Divine purpose of Creation. Based on the Cosmic "Tikkun
" (Rectification) of Lurianic Kabbalah, everything in Creation is part of this Messianic rectification, and if it were to be missing, then the rectification would be incomplete. The meaning of this can be understood by considering its background in the esoteric structures of Kabbalah
, especially the teachings of Isaac Luria
. In these new doctrines, our Physical World and all its details, take on Cosmic significance in the Divine scheme of Creation. Every action and each person is significant, as it relates to the overall redemption of the fallen "Nitzutzot" (Divine sparks from the Primordial catastrophe of the "Shattering of the Vessels" of the World of "Tohu"). The Rectification can only be achieved in this lowest realm. This explains that the reason that most of the Mitzvot (Observances) of Judaism involve action, is their metaphysical role in achieving the redemption of the hidden Divinity in Creation. In the words of Luria, every animate and inanimate object has a spiritual form of "soul" within its physical form, which is its continual creating source in the Divine Light
. Even a stone would have this level of a "soul" though this is not like the living soul of a plant, the conscious soul of an animal, or the intelligent soul of man. It is rather its animating existence in the Divine Will, as in Jewish mysticism, Creation is continuous and would revert to nothingness without the constant Divine animation within it. Accordingly, in the words of Luria, "every leaf contains a soul that came into the world to receive a Rectification". Gilgul
(Kabbalistic process of reincarnation), the rectification of an individual soul, becomes a microcosmic reflection in Lurianic Kabbalah, to the macrocosmic Divine Rectification. In Hasidism, the structural dynamics of this cosmic scheme are followed, but instead are related to their inner Divine dimensions in the direct psychological perception and life of man:
The Hasidic relation of the Jewish mystical tradition, to the daily life of the common folk, sanctified the world of the shtetl
in the popular imagination. Its charismatic
adaptions of the profound thought of Hasidic philosophy
, entered Yiddish literature
, where the ideas of gilgul
and dybuk, and the direct immanent Presence of God, affected secular Jewish culture.
. The second section of the Hasidic text the Tanya
by Schneur Zalman of Liadi (Shaar Hayichud Vehaemunah-Gate of Unity and Faith), brings the mystical Panentheism
of the Baal Shem Tov into philosophical explanation. It explains the Hasidic interpretation of God's Unity in the first two lines of the Shema, based upon their interpretation in Kabbalah. The emphasis on Divine Omnipresence and Immanence lies behind Hasidic joy and deveikut, and its stress on transforming the material into spiritual worship. In this internalisation of Kabbalistic ideas, the Hasidic follower seeks to reveal the Unity of hidden Divinity in all activities of life.
Medieval, Rationalist Jewish Philosophers
, such as Maimonides, describe Biblical Monotheism
to mean that there is only one God, and His essence is a unique, simple, infinite Unity. Jewish mysticism gives a further explanation, by distinguishing between God's essence and emanation. In Kabbalah and especially Hasidism, God's Unity means that there is nothing independent of His essence. The new doctrine in Lurianic Kabbalah of God's Tzimtzum
("Withdrawal"), received different interpretations after Isaac Luria
, from the literal to the metaphorical. To Hasidism and Schneur Zalman, it is unthinkable for the withdrawal of God that "makes possible" Creation, to be taken literally. Tzimtzum only relates to the Ohr Ein Sof
("Infinite Light"), not the Ein Sof
(Divine essence) itself, and involved only apparent concealment, not actual concealment. God's unbounded essence is revealed in both complimentary infinitude (infinite light) and finitude (finite light). The withdrawal was only the illusion of concealment of the Infinite Light into the essence of God, to allow the latent potentially finite light to emerge apparent to Creation after the Tzimtzum. God Himself remains unaffected ("For I, the Lord, I have not changed" Malachi
3:6). His essence was One, alone, before Creation, and still One, alone, after Creation, without any change. As the Tzimtzum
was only the illusion of concealment, therefore God's Unity is Omnipresent. In the Baal Shem Tov's new interpretation, Divine Providence affects every detail of Creation, as everything is part of the unfolding Divine Unity, and is a necessary part of the Kabbalistic Messianic Rectification. This awareness of the loving purpose and significance of each individual, awakens mystical love and awe of God (deveikut).
, describes the first verse of the Shema ("Hear Israel, the Lord is God, the Lord is One") as the "Upper level Unity", and the second line ("Blessed be the Name of the Glory of His Kingdom forever") as the "Lower level Unity". Schneur Zalman gives the Hasidic explanation of this. In Kabbalah, all Creation is dependent on the immanent, potentially finite, "Light that Fills all Worlds
", that each Creation receives continually. Creation is a continuous process, as without the downward flow of spiritual Light from God's Will, Creation would revert to nothingness. Lurianic Kabbalah extends the Divine Unity in this, by describing the particular Nitzot (Divine spark) enclothed within, that gives life to each entity. The Baal Shem Tov's Hasidic Panentheism
describes the further, complete unity of God with Creation. In his interpretation, quoted by Schneur Zalman, the Creative words of God of Genesis, through innumerable permutations of their Hebrew letters, themselves become each spiritual and physical entity of Creation. This extends Luria's Divine immanence, to complete Unity. Isaac Luria's doctrine of the Tzimtzum
withdrawal of God, that made a "vacuum" within which finite Creation could take place, is therefore not literal. It is only a concealment of God's creating light, and only from the perspective of Creation. God remains in the vacuum exactly as before Creation. In reality all Creation is completely bittul-nullified to God's light, even though in our realm this utter dependence is presently concealed. From this perspective, of God knowing the Creation on its own terms, Creation exists, but the essence of anything is only the Divine light that continuously recreates it from nothing. God is One, as Creation takes place within God. "There is nothing outside of Him." This is the "Lower Level Unity".
name of God. However, "It is not the essence of the Divine to create Worlds and substain them", as this ability is only external to the Infinite essence. Creation only derives from God's revelatory "speech" (as in Genesis 1), and even this is unlike the external speech of Man, as it too remains "within" God. From the upper perspective of God knowing Himself on His own terms, Creation does not exist, as it is as nothing in relation to God's essence. This Monistic Acosmism
is the "Upper Level Unity", as from this perspective, only God exists. The Illusionism of this is not absolute, as the paradox means that both contradictory Upper and Lower levels of Unity are true.
in intellectual systemisation. This was exemplified by the aim of the 5th Rebbe, Sholom Dovber Schneersohn
, that his Yeshiva
academies should study Hasidic thought with the logical method of Pilpul
, traditionally used in Talmud
ic study. In the Hasidic teachings of Habad, this approach was used by each Rebbe in their public discourses and talks, with each successive leader aiming to bring down the philosophy of Hasidism into greater grasp and articulation. The 7th leader, Menachem Mendel Schneerson
typically addressed Hasidic philosophy most often in informal, analytical Talks
. This approach to Hasidic mysticism enabled it to study the integration of other aspects of Jewish thought, into the Hasidic explanations. In Hasidic terminology, it takes a higher spiritual source in Divinity to unite opposing, lower opinions. In Hasidic thought, Talmudic legislation, Midrashic imagination, Rationalist descriptions and Kabbalistic structures are seen to reflect lower dimensions of a higher, essential Divine Unity. This method was used by the 7th Rebbe to address the topic of Divine Providence. In a series of talks, translated and published in English, the Lubavitcher Rebbe addresses the resolution between the Hasidic conception of Divine Providence, and its previous formulations in Medieval Jewish Philosophy and Kabbalah. It sees the views of Maimonides and others as part of the new conception of the Baal Shem Tov.
Specific approaches
Hebrew language
Hebrew is a Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Culturally, is it considered by Jews and other religious groups as the language of the Jewish people, though other Jewish languages had originated among diaspora Jews, and the Hebrew language is also used by non-Jewish groups, such...
השגחה פרטית Hashgochoh Protis / Hashgachah Pratit, lit. Divine supervision of the individual) is discussed throughout Rabbinic literature
Rabbinic literature
Rabbinic literature, in its broadest sense, can mean the entire spectrum of rabbinic writings throughout Jewish history. However, the term often refers specifically to literature from the Talmudic era, as opposed to medieval and modern rabbinic writing, and thus corresponds with the Hebrew term...
, by the classical Jewish philosophers
Jewish philosophy
Jewish philosophy , includes all philosophy carried out by Jews, or, in relation to the religion of Judaism. Jewish philosophy, until modern Enlightenment and Emancipation, was pre-occupied with attempts to reconcile coherent new ideas into the tradition of Rabbinic Judaism; thus organizing...
, and by the tradition of Jewish mysticism.
The discussion brings into consideration the Jewish understanding of Nature
Nature
Nature, in the broadest sense, is equivalent to the natural world, physical world, or material world. "Nature" refers to the phenomena of the physical world, and also to life in general...
, and its reciprocal, the Miraculous
Miracle
A miracle often denotes an event attributed to divine intervention. Alternatively, it may be an event attributed to a miracle worker, saint, or religious leader. A miracle is sometimes thought of as a perceptible interruption of the laws of nature. Others suggest that a god may work with the laws...
. This analysis thus underpins much of Orthodox Judaism
Orthodox Judaism
Orthodox Judaism , is the approach to Judaism which adheres to the traditional interpretation and application of the laws and ethics of the Torah as legislated in the Talmudic texts by the Sanhedrin and subsequently developed and applied by the later authorities known as the Gaonim, Rishonim, and...
's world view
World view
A comprehensive world view is the fundamental cognitive orientation of an individual or society encompassing the entirety of the individual or society's knowledge and point-of-view, including natural philosophy; fundamental, existential, and normative postulates; or themes, values, emotions, and...
, particularly as regards questions of interaction with the natural world.
Classical Jewish philosophy
Divine providence is discussed by all of the major thinkersJewish philosophy
Jewish philosophy , includes all philosophy carried out by Jews, or, in relation to the religion of Judaism. Jewish philosophy, until modern Enlightenment and Emancipation, was pre-occupied with attempts to reconcile coherent new ideas into the tradition of Rabbinic Judaism; thus organizing...
, but its extent and nature is a matter of dispute. There are, broadly, two views, differing largely as to the frequency with which God intervenes in the natural order. The first view admits a frequency of miracle
Miracle
A miracle often denotes an event attributed to divine intervention. Alternatively, it may be an event attributed to a miracle worker, saint, or religious leader. A miracle is sometimes thought of as a perceptible interruption of the laws of nature. Others suggest that a god may work with the laws...
s. Here there is a stability of the natural order which nevertheless allows for the interference of God in the regulation of human events, or even in disturbing the natural order on occasion. The second, rationalist view does not deny the occurrence of miracles, but attempts to limit it, and will rationalize the numerous miraculous events related in the Bible and bring them within the sphere of the natural order.
Nachmanides
The teachings of Nachmanides are largely representative of the first view. He holds that the CreatorCreator deity
A creator deity is a deity responsible for the creation of the world . In monotheism, the single God is often also the creator deity, while polytheistic traditions may or may not have creator deities...
endowed the universe with physical
Nature
Nature, in the broadest sense, is equivalent to the natural world, physical world, or material world. "Nature" refers to the phenomena of the physical world, and also to life in general...
properties, and sustains the natural order, and that any act of providence involves, by definition, an intrusion into the laws of nature. In the absence of providential interference, cause and effect
Causality
Causality is the relationship between an event and a second event , where the second event is understood as a consequence of the first....
governs the affairs of the universe. In Ramban's view, reward and punishment — as well as guidance of the fate of Israel — are the typical expressions of such providence (see Ramban: Torat Hashem Temimah). In this sense there is no difference between God causing it to rain
Rain
Rain is liquid precipitation, as opposed to non-liquid kinds of precipitation such as snow, hail and sleet. Rain requires the presence of a thick layer of the atmosphere to have temperatures above the melting point of water near and above the Earth's surface...
(as a reward) and His separating the waters of the Red Sea
Red Sea
The Red Sea is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait and the Gulf of Aden. In the north, there is the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez...
. Both are the result of Divine intervention.
All events (natural or providential) are the result of the direct will of God, and, as such, the seemingly natural order of the world is an illusion. At the same time, any (obvious) breach in the chain of causality involves a "compromise” in the default cause and effect nature of the universe — providence is thus exercised sparingly, and in a "seemingly natural" manner (Genesis 6:19 ad loc). Thus, whereas the fate of the Jews as a nation is guided by providence, individuals do not enjoy the same providential relationship with the Almighty. Only the righteous and the wicked can expect providential treatment. The fate of more “average” individuals is primarily guided by natural law (Deuteronomy
Deuteronomy
The Book of Deuteronomy is the fifth book of the Hebrew Bible, and of the Jewish Torah/Pentateuch...
11:13 ad loc).
Maimonides
Maimonides
Moses ben-Maimon, called Maimonides and also known as Mūsā ibn Maymūn in Arabic, or Rambam , was a preeminent medieval Jewish philosopher and one of the greatest Torah scholars and physicians of the Middle Ages...
("Rambam") is representative of the rationalist school. He holds that the pattern of nature is basically immutable. “This Universe remains perpetually with the same properties with which the Creator has endowed it… none of these will ever be changed except by way of miracle
Miracle
A miracle often denotes an event attributed to divine intervention. Alternatively, it may be an event attributed to a miracle worker, saint, or religious leader. A miracle is sometimes thought of as a perceptible interruption of the laws of nature. Others suggest that a god may work with the laws...
in some individual instances….” (Guide
Guide for the Perplexed
The Guide for the Perplexed is one of the major works of Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon, better known as Maimonides or "the Rambam"...
2:29). This notwithstanding, Maimonides believes that God rewards and punishes appropriately.
To some extent, Rambam reconciles the two views by defining providence as an essentially natural process. Here individual providence depends on the development of the human mind: that is, the more a man develops his mind the more he is subject to the providence of God. Providence is, in fact, a function of intellectual and spiritual activity: it is the activity, not the person that merits providence. "Divine Providence is connected with Divine intellectual influence, and the same beings which are benefited by the latter so as to become intellectual, and to comprehend things comprehensible to rational beings, are also under the control of Divine Providence, which examines all their deeds in order to reward or punish them." (Guide
Guide for the Perplexed
The Guide for the Perplexed is one of the major works of Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon, better known as Maimonides or "the Rambam"...
3:17).
Further, by defining Providence as function of human activity, Maimonides avoids the problem of how God can be affected by events on Earth, lessening any implication of change within God and the resultant implication of a lack of perfection.; see Divine simplicity
Divine simplicity
In theology, the doctrine of divine simplicity says that God is without parts. The general idea of divine simplicity can be stated in this way: the being of God is identical to the "attributes" of God. In other words, such characteristics as omnipresence, goodness, truth, eternity, etc...
. Maimonides, relatedly, views "reward and punishment" as manifesting in the World to Come as opposed to in this world (see Talmud
Talmud
The Talmud is a central text of mainstream Judaism. It takes the form of a record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, philosophy, customs and history....
, Kiddushin 39b; Pirkei Avot 2:16) — he therefore defines Divine providence as that which facilitates intellectual attainment as opposed to as an instrument of reward and punishment.
Contemporary Orthodox thought
From a religious point of view, the extent to which nature is fixed, and to which God intervenes in human affairs, will have very strong implications as to what level, and kind, of interaction with the natural world are appropriate. The question of Divine providence thus remains relevant in (Orthodox) Jewish thought. In fact, both of the above approaches continue to influence contemporary Orthodox JudaismOrthodox Judaism
Orthodox Judaism , is the approach to Judaism which adheres to the traditional interpretation and application of the laws and ethics of the Torah as legislated in the Talmudic texts by the Sanhedrin and subsequently developed and applied by the later authorities known as the Gaonim, Rishonim, and...
. In general, Nachmanides' view is influential in Haredi Judaism
Haredi Judaism
Haredi or Charedi/Chareidi Judaism is the most conservative form of Orthodox Judaism, often referred to as ultra-Orthodox. A follower of Haredi Judaism is called a Haredi ....
, while Maimonides
Maimonides
Moses ben-Maimon, called Maimonides and also known as Mūsā ibn Maymūn in Arabic, or Rambam , was a preeminent medieval Jewish philosopher and one of the greatest Torah scholars and physicians of the Middle Ages...
' view — in addition to Nachmanides' — underpins much of Modern Orthodox
Modern Orthodox Judaism
Modern Orthodox Judaism is a movement within Orthodox Judaism that attempts to synthesize Jewish values and the observance of Jewish law, with the secular, modern world....
thought. The difference between the two approaches manifests particularly in the importance assigned to, and attitudes toward, three areas:
- Derech Eretz (דרך ארץ): involvement with the natural world, particularly for purposes of livelihood.
- TechnologyTechnologyTechnology is the making, usage, and knowledge of tools, machines, techniques, crafts, systems or methods of organization in order to solve a problem or perform a specific function. It can also refer to the collection of such tools, machinery, and procedures. The word technology comes ;...
: the use and manipulation of nature. - Madda (מדע)Torah UmaddaTorah Umadda is a philosophy of Modern Orthodox Judaism, concerning the interrelationship between the secular world and Judaism, and in particular between secular knowledge and Jewish knowledge...
: knowledge of the functioning of nature and society, both to facilitate derech eretz and as a complement to Torah studyTorah studyTorah study is the study by Jewish people of the Torah, Hebrew Bible, Talmud, responsa, rabbinic literature and similar works, all of which are Judaism's religious texts...
.
Haredi Judaism
The view of RabbiRabbi
In Judaism, a rabbi is a teacher of Torah. This title derives from the Hebrew word רבי , meaning "My Master" , which is the way a student would address a master of Torah...
Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler
Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler
Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler was an Orthodox rabbi, Talmudic scholar, and Jewish philosopher of the 20th century. He is known as mashgiach ruchani of the Ponevezh yeshiva in Israel and through collections of his writings published posthumously by his pupils.-Lithuania:Eliyahu Dessler Eliyahu Eliezer...
is representative of the Haredi approach. To generalise, Rabbi Dessler (along with the Chazon Ish) teaches that given the illusory "nature of nature", each individual must find their appropriate balance between personal effort (hishtadlus / hishtadlut השתדלות) and trust (bitochon / bitachon ביטחון). "Rav Dessler", relatedly, often repeated the idea that every object and circumstance in the material world should be viewed as a means of serving Hashem (God).
- In line with Ramban, Rabbi Dessler defines nature as the arena of "Nisayon" (נסיון HebrewHebrew languageHebrew is a Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Culturally, is it considered by Jews and other religious groups as the language of the Jewish people, though other Jewish languages had originated among diaspora Jews, and the Hebrew language is also used by non-Jewish groups, such...
: [spiritual] test) — i.e. one will engage in derech eretz in inverse proportion to his recognition of God's providential role. Rabbi Dessler thus advises (based on Mesillat YesharimMesillat YesharimThe Mesillat Yesharim is an ethical text composed by the influential Rabbi Moshe Chaim Luzzatto . It is quite different from Luzzato's other writings, which are more philosophical....
Ch. 21) that one make his Torah fixed (kavua קבוע) and his derech eretz temporary and contingent on circumstances (arai עראי). Note that Rabbi Dessler stresses that "[one cannot] exploit a tendency to laziness in order to bolster his bitochon in Hashem ("trust in God") … Trust in Hashem cannot be built up this way because the goal here is not to refrain from work but to attain certainty in bitochon in Hashem that leads to lessening worldly endeavors." (Michtav m'Eliyahu, vol. 1. pp. 194– 5) - Given this conception of nature, Rav Dessler castigates preoccupation with technological enterprises and deems this the equivalent of idolatryIdolatryIdolatry is a pejorative term for the worship of an idol, a physical object such as a cult image, as a god, or practices believed to verge on worship, such as giving undue honour and regard to created forms other than God. In all the Abrahamic religions idolatry is strongly forbidden, although...
. He writes that a civilization which is preoccupied with developing the external and the material, and neglects the inner moral content will eventually degenerate to its lowest possible depths : “Happiness in this world comes only as a result of being content with what one has in this world, and striving intensively for spiritualitySpiritualitySpirituality can refer to an ultimate or an alleged immaterial reality; an inner path enabling a person to discover the essence of his/her being; or the “deepest values and meanings by which people live.” Spiritual practices, including meditation, prayer and contemplation, are intended to develop...
” and thus “the more that people try to improve this world, the more their troubles will backlash … Instead of realizing they are drowning in materialismMaterialismIn philosophy, the theory of materialism holds that the only thing that exists is matter; that all things are composed of material and all phenomena are the result of material interactions. In other words, matter is the only substance...
, they search for further ways to enhance physicality” (See Michtav m'Eliyahu, vol. 2 p. 236-310 and vol. 3 p. 143-70). - Rav Dessler writes that the acquisition of secular knowledge is unlikely to be other than at the expense of Torah knowledge. "The philosophy of Yeshiva educationYeshivaYeshiva is a Jewish educational institution that focuses on the study of traditional religious texts, primarily the Talmud and Torah study. Study is usually done through daily shiurim and in study pairs called chavrutas...
is directed towards one objective alone, to nurture Gedolei Torah ("greats in Torah knowledge") and Yirei Shamayim (those "fearful of Heaven") in tandem. For this reason university was prohibited to [yeshiva] students… [educators] could not see how to nurture Gedolei Torah unless they directed all education towards Torah exclusively" (letter in Michtav m'Eliyahu vol. 3).
Modern Orthodox Judaism
RabbiRabbi
In Judaism, a rabbi is a teacher of Torah. This title derives from the Hebrew word רבי , meaning "My Master" , which is the way a student would address a master of Torah...
Joseph Soloveitchik
Joseph Soloveitchik
Joseph Ber Soloveitchik was an American Orthodox rabbi, Talmudist and modern Jewish philosopher. He was a descendant of the Lithuanian Jewish Soloveitchik rabbinic dynasty....
— probably Modern Orthodoxy’s most influential theologian — echoes Maimonides
Maimonides
Moses ben-Maimon, called Maimonides and also known as Mūsā ibn Maymūn in Arabic, or Rambam , was a preeminent medieval Jewish philosopher and one of the greatest Torah scholars and physicians of the Middle Ages...
’ teaching. He writes that “the fundamental of providence is… transformed into a concrete commandment, an obligation incumbent upon man. Man is obliged to broaden the scope and strengthen the intensity of the individual providence that watches over him. Everything is dependent on him; it is all in his hands” (Halakhic Man, p. 128).
- In line with this emphasis on proactivityProActiveProActive is Java grid middleware for parallel, distributed, and multi-threaded computing. It is developed by the OW2 Consortium, including INRIA, CNRS, University of Nice Sophia Antipolis, and ActiveEon...
, Modern Orthodox thought regards derech eretz, Man's involvement with the natural world, as a divine imperativeMitzvahThe primary meaning of the Hebrew word refers to precepts and commandments as commanded by God...
inherent in the nature of creation (as opposed to as a "necessary evil" as above). Here, "worldly involvement" extends to a positive contribution to general society. This understanding is reflected both in Rav Soloveitchik's conception as well as in the teachings of Rabbi Samson Raphael HirschSamson Raphael HirschSamson Raphael Hirsch was a German rabbi best known as the intellectual founder of the Torah im Derech Eretz school of contemporary Orthodox Judaism...
; see תורה ומדע - Torah Umadda, תורה עם דרך ארץ - Torah im Derech Eretz. - Similarly, Rabbi Soloveitchik, in The Lonely Man of Faith, mandates the involvement of human beings in technological activity. This is based on God's blessing to Adam and Eve "Fill the land and conquer it" (Genesis 1:28), which extends to the obligation of imitatio deiImitatio deiImitatio dei is a religious concept by which man finds virtue by attempting to imitate God. It is found in several world religions. In some branches of Christianity, however, it plays a key role.-Christianity:...
. The use and development of Technology, then, is not characterised as "prideful", but rather is seen as obligatory upon man. - Further, Madda, knowledge of the natural world and society, is regarded as vital in Modern Orthodox thought. This knowledge plays an obvious role in the facilitation of derech eretz and the development of technology. It is also seen as valuable as a complement to Torah studyTorah studyTorah study is the study by Jewish people of the Torah, Hebrew Bible, Talmud, responsa, rabbinic literature and similar works, all of which are Judaism's religious texts...
. This further reflects Maimonides, in that he, famously, defines science and philosophy as "Handmaidens" of Torah study — one could not be a learned Jew without this knowledge.
Particular Divine Providence in Hasidic philosophy
In the Middle-Ages, the new discipline in Rabbinic JudaismRabbinic Judaism
Rabbinic Judaism or Rabbinism has been the mainstream form of Judaism since the 6th century CE, after the codification of the Talmud...
of classic, Medieval Jewish Rationalistic Philosophy
Jewish philosophy
Jewish philosophy , includes all philosophy carried out by Jews, or, in relation to the religion of Judaism. Jewish philosophy, until modern Enlightenment and Emancipation, was pre-occupied with attempts to reconcile coherent new ideas into the tradition of Rabbinic Judaism; thus organizing...
arose, exemplified by its leading figure Maimonides
Maimonides
Moses ben-Maimon, called Maimonides and also known as Mūsā ibn Maymūn in Arabic, or Rambam , was a preeminent medieval Jewish philosopher and one of the greatest Torah scholars and physicians of the Middle Ages...
. It sought to bring the tradition in Western Philosophy
Western philosophy
Western philosophy is the philosophical thought and work of the Western or Occidental world, as distinct from Eastern or Oriental philosophies and the varieties of indigenous philosophies....
of independent thinking from first principles, in support and harmony with Rabbinic theology of the Talmud
Talmud
The Talmud is a central text of mainstream Judaism. It takes the form of a record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, philosophy, customs and history....
. In Rabbinic Judaism, this approach, which had its supporters and detractors, was called Hakirah ("Investigation") to distinguish from other traditions in Jewish thought. Another, parallel tradition of Kabbalah
Kabbalah
Kabbalah/Kabala is a discipline and school of thought concerned with the esoteric aspect of Rabbinic Judaism. It was systematized in 11th-13th century Hachmei Provence and Spain, and again after the Expulsion from Spain, in 16th century Ottoman Palestine...
("Received" Jewish mysticism), expressed a mystical exegesis of Biblical and Rabbinic texts, and a metaphysical
Metaphysics
Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy concerned with explaining the fundamental nature of being and the world, although the term is not easily defined. Traditionally, metaphysics attempts to answer two basic questions in the broadest possible terms:...
theology. Both became part of the cannon of Rabbinic literature
Rabbinic literature
Rabbinic literature, in its broadest sense, can mean the entire spectrum of rabbinic writings throughout Jewish history. However, the term often refers specifically to literature from the Talmudic era, as opposed to medieval and modern rabbinic writing, and thus corresponds with the Hebrew term...
. The classic figure in Jewish thought, Nachmanides, was one of the early exponents of Kabbalah, though his Bible commentary
Jewish commentaries on the Bible
This article describes the first printing of the Hebrew Bible with major Jewish commentaries, notes concerning translations into Aramaic and English, lists some universally accepted Jewish commentaries with notes on their method of approach and lists modern translations into English with notes.-...
avoides using the direct terminology of Kabbalah. As the tradition of Kabbalah developed, it evolved through the successive stages of Medieval Kabbalah, exemplified in the Zohar
Zohar
The Zohar is the foundational work in the literature of Jewish mystical thought known as Kabbalah. It is a group of books including commentary on the mystical aspects of the Torah and scriptural interpretations as well as material on Mysticism, mythical cosmogony, and mystical psychology...
, the 16th-century rational synthesis of Cordoveran Kabbalah, the subsequent new paradigm of Cosmic rectification in Lurianic Kabbalah, and the 18th-century popularisation of Jewish mysticism in Hasidism.
The teachings of Hasidic philosophy
Hasidic philosophy
Hasidic philosophy or Hasidus , alternatively transliterated as Hassidism, Chassidism, Chassidut etc. is the teachings, interpretations of Judaism, and mysticism articulated by the modern Hasidic movement...
sought the inner divinity within the esoteric structures of Kabbalah, by relating them to their internal correspondence in the daily spiritual life of man. It sought to awaken a personal, psychological perception of Godliness in dveikut (mystical joy and cleaving to God). The interpretations of Judaism and Jewish philosophy in Hasidism taught new dimensions of Divine Unity, Omnipresence and individual Divine Providence. In the new teaching of Yisrael Baal Shem Tov, the founder of Hasidism, Divine Providence governs every detail of Creation. He taught that "the movement of a leaf in the wind" is a part of the Divine purpose of Creation. Based on the Cosmic "Tikkun
Tikkun olam
Tikkun olam is a Hebrew phrase that means "repairing the world." In Judaism, the concept of tikkun olam originated in the early rabbinic period...
" (Rectification) of Lurianic Kabbalah, everything in Creation is part of this Messianic rectification, and if it were to be missing, then the rectification would be incomplete. The meaning of this can be understood by considering its background in the esoteric structures of Kabbalah
Kabbalah
Kabbalah/Kabala is a discipline and school of thought concerned with the esoteric aspect of Rabbinic Judaism. It was systematized in 11th-13th century Hachmei Provence and Spain, and again after the Expulsion from Spain, in 16th century Ottoman Palestine...
, especially the teachings of Isaac Luria
Isaac Luria
Isaac Luria , also called Yitzhak Ben Shlomo Ashkenazi acronym "The Ari" "Ari-Hakadosh", or "Arizal", meaning "The Lion", was a foremost rabbi and Jewish mystic in the community of Safed in the Galilee region of Ottoman Palestine...
. In these new doctrines, our Physical World and all its details, take on Cosmic significance in the Divine scheme of Creation. Every action and each person is significant, as it relates to the overall redemption of the fallen "Nitzutzot" (Divine sparks from the Primordial catastrophe of the "Shattering of the Vessels" of the World of "Tohu"). The Rectification can only be achieved in this lowest realm. This explains that the reason that most of the Mitzvot (Observances) of Judaism involve action, is their metaphysical role in achieving the redemption of the hidden Divinity in Creation. In the words of Luria, every animate and inanimate object has a spiritual form of "soul" within its physical form, which is its continual creating source in the Divine Light
Ohr
Ohr is a central Kabbalistic term in the Jewish mystical tradition. The analogy of physical light is used as a way of describing metaphysical Divine emanations...
. Even a stone would have this level of a "soul" though this is not like the living soul of a plant, the conscious soul of an animal, or the intelligent soul of man. It is rather its animating existence in the Divine Will, as in Jewish mysticism, Creation is continuous and would revert to nothingness without the constant Divine animation within it. Accordingly, in the words of Luria, "every leaf contains a soul that came into the world to receive a Rectification". Gilgul
Gilgul
Gilgul/Gilgul neshamot/Gilgulei Ha Neshamot describes a Kabbalistic concept of reincarnation. In Hebrew, the word gilgul means "cycle" and neshamot is the plural for "souls." Souls are seen to "cycle" through "lives" or "incarnations", being attached to different human bodies over time...
(Kabbalistic process of reincarnation), the rectification of an individual soul, becomes a microcosmic reflection in Lurianic Kabbalah, to the macrocosmic Divine Rectification. In Hasidism, the structural dynamics of this cosmic scheme are followed, but instead are related to their inner Divine dimensions in the direct psychological perception and life of man:
On a Yartzheit (anniversary of a person's passing), the near family recite KaddishKaddishKaddish is a prayer found in the Jewish prayer service. The central theme of the Kaddish is the magnification and sanctification of God's name. In the liturgy different versions of the Kaddish are used functionally as separators between sections of the service...
for the elevation of the soul of the departed. After the synagogue service, in Hasidic communities, the prayer leader offers l'chaim drinks of spirits and cake to the other people attending. The Baal Shem Tov explained that the real benefit to the soul of the departed comes mostly from the sincere and heartfelt expressions of "to life" and the benefit of substenance given in love to another person. That, he explained, achieves the greatest elevation, of which the angels are envious!
The Hasidic relation of the Jewish mystical tradition, to the daily life of the common folk, sanctified the world of the shtetl
Shtetl
A shtetl was typically a small town with a large Jewish population in Central and Eastern Europe until The Holocaust. Shtetls were mainly found in the areas which constituted the 19th century Pale of Settlement in the Russian Empire, the Congress Kingdom of Poland, Galicia and Romania...
in the popular imagination. Its charismatic
Folk religion
Folk religion consists of ethnic or regional religious customs under the umbrella of an organized religion, but outside of official doctrine and practices...
adaptions of the profound thought of Hasidic philosophy
Hasidic philosophy
Hasidic philosophy or Hasidus , alternatively transliterated as Hassidism, Chassidism, Chassidut etc. is the teachings, interpretations of Judaism, and mysticism articulated by the modern Hasidic movement...
, entered Yiddish literature
Yiddish literature
Yiddish literature encompasses all belles lettres written in Yiddish, the language of Ashkenazic Jewry which is related to Middle High German. The history of Yiddish, with its roots in central Europe and locus for centuries in Eastern Europe, is evident in its literature.It is generally described...
, where the ideas of gilgul
Gilgul
Gilgul/Gilgul neshamot/Gilgulei Ha Neshamot describes a Kabbalistic concept of reincarnation. In Hebrew, the word gilgul means "cycle" and neshamot is the plural for "souls." Souls are seen to "cycle" through "lives" or "incarnations", being attached to different human bodies over time...
and dybuk, and the direct immanent Presence of God, affected secular Jewish culture.
Divine Unity in Hasidism
This mystical interpretation of particular Divine Providence is part of the wider Hasidic interpretation of God's UnityGod in Judaism
The conception of God in Judaism is strictly monotheistic. God is an absolute one indivisible incomparable being who is the ultimate cause of all existence. Jewish tradition teaches that the true aspect of God is incomprehensible and unknowable, and that it is only God's revealed aspect that...
. The second section of the Hasidic text the Tanya
Tanya
The Tanya is an early work of Hasidic philosophy, by Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi, the founder of Chabad Hasidism, first published in 1797. Its formal title is Likkutei Amarim , but is more commonly known by its opening word, Tanya, which means "it was taught in a beraita"...
by Schneur Zalman of Liadi (Shaar Hayichud Vehaemunah-Gate of Unity and Faith), brings the mystical Panentheism
Panentheism
Panentheism is a belief system which posits that God exists, interpenetrates every part of nature and timelessly extends beyond it...
of the Baal Shem Tov into philosophical explanation. It explains the Hasidic interpretation of God's Unity in the first two lines of the Shema, based upon their interpretation in Kabbalah. The emphasis on Divine Omnipresence and Immanence lies behind Hasidic joy and deveikut, and its stress on transforming the material into spiritual worship. In this internalisation of Kabbalistic ideas, the Hasidic follower seeks to reveal the Unity of hidden Divinity in all activities of life.
Medieval, Rationalist Jewish Philosophers
Jewish philosophy
Jewish philosophy , includes all philosophy carried out by Jews, or, in relation to the religion of Judaism. Jewish philosophy, until modern Enlightenment and Emancipation, was pre-occupied with attempts to reconcile coherent new ideas into the tradition of Rabbinic Judaism; thus organizing...
, such as Maimonides, describe Biblical Monotheism
Monotheism
Monotheism is the belief in the existence of one and only one god. Monotheism is characteristic of the Baha'i Faith, Christianity, Druzism, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, Samaritanism, Sikhism and Zoroastrianism.While they profess the existence of only one deity, monotheistic religions may still...
to mean that there is only one God, and His essence is a unique, simple, infinite Unity. Jewish mysticism gives a further explanation, by distinguishing between God's essence and emanation. In Kabbalah and especially Hasidism, God's Unity means that there is nothing independent of His essence. The new doctrine in Lurianic Kabbalah of God's Tzimtzum
Tzimtzum
Tzimtzum is a term used in the kabbalistic teaching of Isaac Luria, explaining his concept that God began the process of creation by "contracting" his infinite light in order to allow for a "conceptual space" in which a finite and seemingly independent world could exist...
("Withdrawal"), received different interpretations after Isaac Luria
Isaac Luria
Isaac Luria , also called Yitzhak Ben Shlomo Ashkenazi acronym "The Ari" "Ari-Hakadosh", or "Arizal", meaning "The Lion", was a foremost rabbi and Jewish mystic in the community of Safed in the Galilee region of Ottoman Palestine...
, from the literal to the metaphorical. To Hasidism and Schneur Zalman, it is unthinkable for the withdrawal of God that "makes possible" Creation, to be taken literally. Tzimtzum only relates to the Ohr Ein Sof
Ohr
Ohr is a central Kabbalistic term in the Jewish mystical tradition. The analogy of physical light is used as a way of describing metaphysical Divine emanations...
("Infinite Light"), not the Ein Sof
Ein Sof
Ein Sof , in Kabbalah, is understood as God prior to His self-manifestation in the production of any spiritual Realm, probably derived from Ibn Gabirol's term, "the Endless One"...
(Divine essence) itself, and involved only apparent concealment, not actual concealment. God's unbounded essence is revealed in both complimentary infinitude (infinite light) and finitude (finite light). The withdrawal was only the illusion of concealment of the Infinite Light into the essence of God, to allow the latent potentially finite light to emerge apparent to Creation after the Tzimtzum. God Himself remains unaffected ("For I, the Lord, I have not changed" Malachi
Malachi
Malachi, Malachias or Mal'achi was a Jewish prophet in the Hebrew Bible. He had two brothers, Nathaniel and Josiah. Malachi was the writer of the Book of Malachi, the last book of the Neviim section in the Jewish Tanakh...
3:6). His essence was One, alone, before Creation, and still One, alone, after Creation, without any change. As the Tzimtzum
Tzimtzum
Tzimtzum is a term used in the kabbalistic teaching of Isaac Luria, explaining his concept that God began the process of creation by "contracting" his infinite light in order to allow for a "conceptual space" in which a finite and seemingly independent world could exist...
was only the illusion of concealment, therefore God's Unity is Omnipresent. In the Baal Shem Tov's new interpretation, Divine Providence affects every detail of Creation, as everything is part of the unfolding Divine Unity, and is a necessary part of the Kabbalistic Messianic Rectification. This awareness of the loving purpose and significance of each individual, awakens mystical love and awe of God (deveikut).
Lower Unity
Schneur Zalman explains that God's Unity has two levels, that are both paradoxically true. The main text of Kabbalah, the ZoharZohar
The Zohar is the foundational work in the literature of Jewish mystical thought known as Kabbalah. It is a group of books including commentary on the mystical aspects of the Torah and scriptural interpretations as well as material on Mysticism, mythical cosmogony, and mystical psychology...
, describes the first verse of the Shema ("Hear Israel, the Lord is God, the Lord is One") as the "Upper level Unity", and the second line ("Blessed be the Name of the Glory of His Kingdom forever") as the "Lower level Unity". Schneur Zalman gives the Hasidic explanation of this. In Kabbalah, all Creation is dependent on the immanent, potentially finite, "Light that Fills all Worlds
Ohr
Ohr is a central Kabbalistic term in the Jewish mystical tradition. The analogy of physical light is used as a way of describing metaphysical Divine emanations...
", that each Creation receives continually. Creation is a continuous process, as without the downward flow of spiritual Light from God's Will, Creation would revert to nothingness. Lurianic Kabbalah extends the Divine Unity in this, by describing the particular Nitzot (Divine spark) enclothed within, that gives life to each entity. The Baal Shem Tov's Hasidic Panentheism
Panentheism
Panentheism is a belief system which posits that God exists, interpenetrates every part of nature and timelessly extends beyond it...
describes the further, complete unity of God with Creation. In his interpretation, quoted by Schneur Zalman, the Creative words of God of Genesis, through innumerable permutations of their Hebrew letters, themselves become each spiritual and physical entity of Creation. This extends Luria's Divine immanence, to complete Unity. Isaac Luria's doctrine of the Tzimtzum
Tzimtzum
Tzimtzum is a term used in the kabbalistic teaching of Isaac Luria, explaining his concept that God began the process of creation by "contracting" his infinite light in order to allow for a "conceptual space" in which a finite and seemingly independent world could exist...
withdrawal of God, that made a "vacuum" within which finite Creation could take place, is therefore not literal. It is only a concealment of God's creating light, and only from the perspective of Creation. God remains in the vacuum exactly as before Creation. In reality all Creation is completely bittul-nullified to God's light, even though in our realm this utter dependence is presently concealed. From this perspective, of God knowing the Creation on its own terms, Creation exists, but the essence of anything is only the Divine light that continuously recreates it from nothing. God is One, as Creation takes place within God. "There is nothing outside of Him." This is the "Lower Level Unity".
Higher Unity
In relation to God's essence, Creation affects no change or withdrawal in the Divine. "There is nothing but God". The ability to create can only come from the Divine Atzmut-essence, whose power of infinitude is described by the TetragrammatonTetragrammaton
The term Tetragrammaton refers to the name of the God of Israel YHWH used in the Hebrew Bible.-Hebrew Bible:...
name of God. However, "It is not the essence of the Divine to create Worlds and substain them", as this ability is only external to the Infinite essence. Creation only derives from God's revelatory "speech" (as in Genesis 1), and even this is unlike the external speech of Man, as it too remains "within" God. From the upper perspective of God knowing Himself on His own terms, Creation does not exist, as it is as nothing in relation to God's essence. This Monistic Acosmism
Acosmism
Acosmism, in contrast to pantheism, denies the reality of the universe, seeing it as ultimately illusory, , and only the infinite unmanifest Absolute as real....
is the "Upper Level Unity", as from this perspective, only God exists. The Illusionism of this is not absolute, as the paradox means that both contradictory Upper and Lower levels of Unity are true.
Integration of Providence in Hasidism with Maimonides
The school of Habad Hasidism sought to articulate Hasidic philosophyHasidic philosophy
Hasidic philosophy or Hasidus , alternatively transliterated as Hassidism, Chassidism, Chassidut etc. is the teachings, interpretations of Judaism, and mysticism articulated by the modern Hasidic movement...
in intellectual systemisation. This was exemplified by the aim of the 5th Rebbe, Sholom Dovber Schneersohn
Sholom Dovber Schneersohn
Sholom Dovber Schneersohn was an Orthodox rabbi and the fifth Rebbe of the Chabad Lubavitch chasidic movement. He is also known as "the Rebbe nishmosei eiden" and as "the Rebbe Rashab" .His teachings represent the emergence of an emphasis on outreach that later Chabad Rebbes would develop...
, that his Yeshiva
Tomchei Temimim
Tomchei Temimim is the central Yeshiva of the Chabad-Lubavitch Hasidic movement...
academies should study Hasidic thought with the logical method of Pilpul
Pilpul
Pilpul refers to a method of studying the Talmud through intense textual analysis in attempts to either explain conceptual differences between various halakhic rulings or to reconcile any apparent contradictions presented from various readings of different texts.Pilpul has entered English as a...
, traditionally used in Talmud
Talmud
The Talmud is a central text of mainstream Judaism. It takes the form of a record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, philosophy, customs and history....
ic study. In the Hasidic teachings of Habad, this approach was used by each Rebbe in their public discourses and talks, with each successive leader aiming to bring down the philosophy of Hasidism into greater grasp and articulation. The 7th leader, Menachem Mendel Schneerson
Menachem Mendel Schneerson
Menachem Mendel Schneerson , known as the Lubavitcher Rebbe or just the Rebbe among his followers, was a prominent Hasidic rabbi who was the seventh and last Rebbe of the Chabad-Lubavitch movement. He was fifth in a direct paternal line to the third Chabad-Lubavitch Rebbe, Menachem Mendel...
typically addressed Hasidic philosophy most often in informal, analytical Talks
Likkutei Sichos
Likkutei Sichos, lit. "Collected Talks," is an anthology of essays by the Lubavitcher Rebbe, Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson, relating to the weekly portion of the Torah and special occasions in the Jewish and Hasidic calendar....
. This approach to Hasidic mysticism enabled it to study the integration of other aspects of Jewish thought, into the Hasidic explanations. In Hasidic terminology, it takes a higher spiritual source in Divinity to unite opposing, lower opinions. In Hasidic thought, Talmudic legislation, Midrashic imagination, Rationalist descriptions and Kabbalistic structures are seen to reflect lower dimensions of a higher, essential Divine Unity. This method was used by the 7th Rebbe to address the topic of Divine Providence. In a series of talks, translated and published in English, the Lubavitcher Rebbe addresses the resolution between the Hasidic conception of Divine Providence, and its previous formulations in Medieval Jewish Philosophy and Kabbalah. It sees the views of Maimonides and others as part of the new conception of the Baal Shem Tov.
External links
General discussion- Jewish Encyclopedia entry
- The Study of Nature in Jewish thought, Rabbi Nachum Danzig
- Prayer and Divine Immutability, Rabbi Israel Chait
- Articles on Divine Providence (chabad.org)
- Hashgachah Pratis: An Exploration of Divine Providence and Free Will, Rabbi Aryeh Leibowitz
- "Practical Endeavor and the Torah u-Madda Debate", Rabbi David Shatz
Specific approaches
- Miracles and the Natural Order in Nahmanides, Prof. David Berger
- The Purpose of Signs and Miracles According to the Ramban, Rabbi Ezra Bick
- Maimonides on Providence Moreh Nevuchim, 3:17
- Maimonides on nature and miracles, Rabbi Moshe Taragin
- Miracles in Rambam’s Thought — a Function of Prophecy, David Guttmann
- Philosophic Differences between Rambam & Ramban, Rabbi David Bassous
- Maimonides' and Nachmanides' Perspectives on Miracles, Rabbi Bernard Fox
- The view of Rabbi Dessler
- The view of Rav Soloveichik (ArchivedInternet ArchiveThe Internet Archive is a non-profit digital library with the stated mission of "universal access to all knowledge". It offers permanent storage and access to collections of digitized materials, including websites, music, moving images, and nearly 3 million public domain books. The Internet Archive...
) - The Baal Shem Tov's conception of Divine Providence
- Maharal on Nature and Miracles (HebrewHebrew languageHebrew is a Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Culturally, is it considered by Jews and other religious groups as the language of the Jewish people, though other Jewish languages had originated among diaspora Jews, and the Hebrew language is also used by non-Jewish groups, such...
)