Drahomanivka
Encyclopedia
Drahomanivka was a proposed reform of the Ukrainian alphabet
and orthography, promoted by Mykhailo Drahomanov
. This orthography was used in a few publications and in Drahomanov's correspondence, but due to cultural resistance and political persecution it was never able to catch on.
This phonemic orthography was developed in Kiev
in the 1870s by a group of cultural activists led by Pavlo Zhytetsky
and including Drahomanov, for the compilation of a Ukrainian dictionary. The 1876 Ems Ukaz
banned Ukrainian-language publications and public performances in the Russian Empire, so cultural activity was forced to move abroad before this reform had a chance to be published.
Zhytetsky named this alphabet the Hertsehovynka, after the influence of the recent Serbian
orthography of Vuk Karadžić, from Herzegovina
. But Drahomanov first used it in a publication (Hromada, Geneva 1878), and it came to be popularly referred to as the Drahomanivka. It was used in Drahomanov's publications and personal correspondence, as well as in publications in Western Ukraine (Austro-Hungarian Galicia) by Drahomanov's colleagues Ivan Franko
and Mykhailo Pavlyk (Hromadskyi Druh, Dzvin, and Molot, Lviv 1878). But these publications were opposed by conservative Ukrainian cultural factions (the Old Ruthenians and Russophiles
) and persecuted by the Polish-dominated Galician authorities, and the orthography fell into obscurity.
The Drahomanivka was based on the phonemic principle, with each letter representing exactly one Ukrainian phoneme
(one meaningful unit of sound). Letters representing two sounds (щ, я, є, ю, ї) and the hard sign ъ were abandoned, й was replaced with the Latin j. The digraph щ was replaced by шч, and iotified letters я, є, ю, ї by ја, је, ју, јі. Palatalization
was represented by the soft sign
, so after a softened consonant я, є, ю, ї were written ьа, ье, ьу, ьі. The verb ending ‑ться was written ‑тцьа.
Examples:
An example of the use of Drahomanivka was presented on the 2003 Ukrainian twenty-hryvnia banknote. It shows a fragment of Ivan Franko
's poem Veselka, written in the Drahomanivka, beside the poet's portrait.
Ukrainian alphabet
The Ukrainian alphabet is the set of letters used to write Ukrainian, the official language of Ukraine. It is one of the national variations of the Cyrillic script....
and orthography, promoted by Mykhailo Drahomanov
Mykhailo Drahomanov
Mykhailo Petrovych Drahomanov was a Ukrainian political theorist, economist, historian, philosopher, ethnographer and public figure in Kiev. Born to a noble family of Petro Yakymovych Drahomanov who was of a Cossack descent. Mykhailo Drahomanov started his education at home, then studied at the...
. This orthography was used in a few publications and in Drahomanov's correspondence, but due to cultural resistance and political persecution it was never able to catch on.
This phonemic orthography was developed in Kiev
Kiev
Kiev or Kyiv is the capital and the largest city of Ukraine, located in the north central part of the country on the Dnieper River. The population as of the 2001 census was 2,611,300. However, higher numbers have been cited in the press....
in the 1870s by a group of cultural activists led by Pavlo Zhytetsky
Pavlo Zhytetsky
Pavlo Hnatovych Zhytetsky was a Ukrainian linguist, philologist, ethnographer and literary historian. He was a member of the Imperial Russian Geographic Society , the Historical Society of Nestor the Chronicler , the Shevchenko Scientific Society , and the Ukrainian Scientific Society in Kyiv a...
and including Drahomanov, for the compilation of a Ukrainian dictionary. The 1876 Ems Ukaz
Ems Ukaz
The Ems Ukaz, or Ems Ukase , was a secret decree of Tsar Alexander II of Russia issued in 1876, banning the use of the Ukrainian language in print, with the exception of reprinting of old documents. The ukaz also forbade the import of Ukrainian publications and the staging of plays or lectures in...
banned Ukrainian-language publications and public performances in the Russian Empire, so cultural activity was forced to move abroad before this reform had a chance to be published.
Zhytetsky named this alphabet the Hertsehovynka, after the influence of the recent Serbian
Serbian language
Serbian is a form of Serbo-Croatian, a South Slavic language, spoken by Serbs in Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Croatia and neighbouring countries....
orthography of Vuk Karadžić, from Herzegovina
Herzegovina
Herzegovina is the southern region of Bosnia and Herzegovina. While there is no official border distinguishing it from the Bosnian region, it is generally accepted that the borders of the region are Croatia to the west, Montenegro to the south, the canton boundaries of the Herzegovina-Neretva...
. But Drahomanov first used it in a publication (Hromada, Geneva 1878), and it came to be popularly referred to as the Drahomanivka. It was used in Drahomanov's publications and personal correspondence, as well as in publications in Western Ukraine (Austro-Hungarian Galicia) by Drahomanov's colleagues Ivan Franko
Ivan Franko
Ivan Yakovych Franko was a Ukrainian poet, writer, social and literary critic, journalist, interpreter, economist, political activist, doctor of philosophy, the author of the first detective novels and modern poetry in the Ukrainian language....
and Mykhailo Pavlyk (Hromadskyi Druh, Dzvin, and Molot, Lviv 1878). But these publications were opposed by conservative Ukrainian cultural factions (the Old Ruthenians and Russophiles
Ukrainian Russophiles
The focus of this article is part of a general political movement in Western Ukraine of the nineteenth and early 20th century. The movement contained several competing branches: Moscowphiles, Ukrainophiles, Rusynphiles, and others....
) and persecuted by the Polish-dominated Galician authorities, and the orthography fell into obscurity.
The alphabet
Phoneme
In a language or dialect, a phoneme is the smallest segmental unit of sound employed to form meaningful contrasts between utterances....
(one meaningful unit of sound). Letters representing two sounds (щ, я, є, ю, ї) and the hard sign ъ were abandoned, й was replaced with the Latin j. The digraph щ was replaced by шч, and iotified letters я, є, ю, ї by ја, је, ју, јі. Palatalization
Palatalization
In linguistics, palatalization , also palatization, may refer to two different processes by which a sound, usually a consonant, comes to be produced with the tongue in a position in the mouth near the palate....
was represented by the soft sign
Soft sign
The soft sign , also known as yer, is a letter of the Cyrillic script. In Old Church Slavonic, it represented a short front vowel. As with its companion, the back yer, the vowel phoneme it designated was later partly dropped and partly merged with other vowels...
, so after a softened consonant я, є, ю, ї were written ьа, ье, ьу, ьі. The verb ending ‑ться was written ‑тцьа.
Examples:
- шчука (щука in the modern orthography, ščuka, ‘pike’)
- јаблуко (яблуко, jabluko, ‘apple’)
- свьатиј (святий, svjatyj, ‘saint’)
- сподіваjетцьа (сподівається, spodivajet’sja, ‘anticipates’)
An example of the use of Drahomanivka was presented on the 2003 Ukrainian twenty-hryvnia banknote. It shows a fragment of Ivan Franko
Ivan Franko
Ivan Yakovych Franko was a Ukrainian poet, writer, social and literary critic, journalist, interpreter, economist, political activist, doctor of philosophy, the author of the first detective novels and modern poetry in the Ukrainian language....
's poem Veselka, written in the Drahomanivka, beside the poet's portrait.
- Земле, моjа всеплодьучаjа мати!
- Сили, шчо в твоjij движель глубинi,
- Краплоу, шчоб в боjу смiлijше стоjати,
- даj i мiнi!