Dryland salinity
Encyclopedia
Dryland salinity is salinity that occurs in a landscape that is not irrigated, as distinct from irrigation salinity and urban
salinity.
in the landscape
and its associated detriment to land and water resources; dryland salinity refers to salinity in unirrigated landscapes. Salinity processes extend from local to regional scales and are driven by imbalances in the water budget that result, primarily, from agriculturally driven landscape change. Understanding dryland salinity requires a look at the water cycle
.
Water enters the soil from precipitation – this is called Infiltration
; water may remain indefinitely within the spaces or pores between soil particles as soil moisture. Soil moisture may be lost to the surface or atmosphere directly, or through plant uptake – this is called evapotranspiration. Soil moisture may also continue to move downward to join the groundwater—this is called groundwater recharge. Recharge is most likely to occur when the amount of water that is available to the soil exceeds the soil’s capacity to store it (field capacity). Recharge may also occur by saturated flow when water bypasses the soil matrix as it moves to depth in macropores (e.g. root holes, fractures).
Excessive recharge may raise the water table locally, or at a landscape scale. When brackish to saline groundwater intersects the ground surface and discharges, this is termed saline discharge
. Areas of discharge are called saline seeps (when groundwater intersects the soil surface) or saline scalds (where water is lost by evaporation only). Groundwater discharge manifests in such problems as: reduced agricultural production, degradation of natural environment, reduced surface water quality, damage to infrastructure including roads, as well as soil erosion and denudation of land.
Dryland salinity is a sign that the water balance of the nearby area of land or catchment has been altered. Clearing as little as 25% of a catchment can cause salinity to occur. In addition to adding extra recharge, salinity may also be caused if the aquifers discharge capacity has been exceeded. In many Australian landscapes, aquifer capacity may be several orders of magnitude below that of the altered recharge.
Restoring the balance requires either the introduction of natural vegetation (e.g. mallee eucalyptus or perennial grasses), which intercepts and transpires most of the incoming rainfall; or by adapting agriculture to the increased area of shallow, saline groundwater.
, yet it is the collective role of soil
s and vegetation that has an effect on the root cause of the problem, recharge. Soil health
cannot be ignored as a valuable and extensive activity for the management of dryland salinity – the multiple benefits of improving soil health are clear and can be motivated by the potential for local and regional economic and social gains.
Soil is considered in two contexts when it comes to dryland salinity: Recharge and discharge.
Soils in groundwater recharge areas
Soils absorb and store water according to their water holding or field capacity
and how dry they are to start with. In much of Victoria, under typical rainfall and natural vegetation cover, soils take on water during wet winters and dry out over summers as plants consume the water (Young & Young, 2001). The drier the soil when leading into winter, the more water can be stored that might otherwise leak to groundwater.
To reduce recharge to levels that existed in pre-clearing conditions is generally infeasible in most agricultural landscapes. This is because there are too few profitable perennials that can replace crops or that can be adopted at the scale required. In most recharge areas, that are at risk of future salinity, the goal is to minimise recharge. This can be done by planting wide-spaced trees (alley farming), areas of perennials on suitable soils, and by preventing soils from being left without a significant leaf area in winter and spring. In recharge areas remote from saline areas there is often little incentive for farmers to adopt low profit, low recharge systems. In addition, recharge is the source of fresh groundwater, and a trade off between consumptive use and salinity should be acknowledged.
Soils in groundwater discharge areas
The manifestation of dryland salinity is largely a problem of groundwater – however the accumulation of salt within the soil and at the surface due to proximity to or saturation by saline groundwater causes changes to the soil’s chemistry, structure and stability, and the plant life that it supports.
Managing soils for dryland salinity in catchments
In discharge areas, salinity can be managed by establishing salt tolerant plants and/or by engineering systems. Engineering systems include deep open drains, pumps, siphons and various forms of surface water management. Engineering system involve the obvious discharge of salt and water. While saline areas also disharge salt and water, the abundance and timing will be changed. In most Australian States, farmers would be advised to seek advice before using engineering systems.
Establishing salt-tolerant plants can improve salt discharge rates and improve soil health. Improvements undertaken at a catchment scale bring many benefits, not the least of which is providing for increased agricultural and associated regional productivity – utilising water for production that otherwise would contributed to an environmental problem.
Urban area
An urban area is characterized by higher population density and vast human features in comparison to areas surrounding it. Urban areas may be cities, towns or conurbations, but the term is not commonly extended to rural settlements such as villages and hamlets.Urban areas are created and further...
salinity.
Overview
Salinity refers to the movement and concentration of saltSalt
In chemistry, salts are ionic compounds that result from the neutralization reaction of an acid and a base. They are composed of cations and anions so that the product is electrically neutral...
in the landscape
Landscape
Landscape comprises the visible features of an area of land, including the physical elements of landforms such as mountains, hills, water bodies such as rivers, lakes, ponds and the sea, living elements of land cover including indigenous vegetation, human elements including different forms of...
and its associated detriment to land and water resources; dryland salinity refers to salinity in unirrigated landscapes. Salinity processes extend from local to regional scales and are driven by imbalances in the water budget that result, primarily, from agriculturally driven landscape change. Understanding dryland salinity requires a look at the water cycle
Water cycle
The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle or H2O cycle, describes the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth. Water can change states among liquid, vapor, and solid at various places in the water cycle...
.
Water enters the soil from precipitation – this is called Infiltration
Infiltration (hydrology)
Infiltration is the process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil. Infiltration rate in soil science is a measure of the rate at which soil is able to absorb rainfall or irrigation. It is measured in inches per hour or millimeters per hour. The rate decreases as the soil becomes...
; water may remain indefinitely within the spaces or pores between soil particles as soil moisture. Soil moisture may be lost to the surface or atmosphere directly, or through plant uptake – this is called evapotranspiration. Soil moisture may also continue to move downward to join the groundwater—this is called groundwater recharge. Recharge is most likely to occur when the amount of water that is available to the soil exceeds the soil’s capacity to store it (field capacity). Recharge may also occur by saturated flow when water bypasses the soil matrix as it moves to depth in macropores (e.g. root holes, fractures).
Excessive recharge may raise the water table locally, or at a landscape scale. When brackish to saline groundwater intersects the ground surface and discharges, this is termed saline discharge
Discharge (hydrology)
In hydrology, discharge is the volume rate of water flow, including any suspended solids , dissolved chemical species and/or biologic material , which is transported through a given cross-sectional area...
. Areas of discharge are called saline seeps (when groundwater intersects the soil surface) or saline scalds (where water is lost by evaporation only). Groundwater discharge manifests in such problems as: reduced agricultural production, degradation of natural environment, reduced surface water quality, damage to infrastructure including roads, as well as soil erosion and denudation of land.
Dryland salinity is a sign that the water balance of the nearby area of land or catchment has been altered. Clearing as little as 25% of a catchment can cause salinity to occur. In addition to adding extra recharge, salinity may also be caused if the aquifers discharge capacity has been exceeded. In many Australian landscapes, aquifer capacity may be several orders of magnitude below that of the altered recharge.
Restoring the balance requires either the introduction of natural vegetation (e.g. mallee eucalyptus or perennial grasses), which intercepts and transpires most of the incoming rainfall; or by adapting agriculture to the increased area of shallow, saline groundwater.
The role of soils in dryland salinity
Dryland salinity management often focuses on vegetationVegetation
Vegetation is a general term for the plant life of a region; it refers to the ground cover provided by plants. It is a general term, without specific reference to particular taxa, life forms, structure, spatial extent, or any other specific botanical or geographic characteristics. It is broader...
, yet it is the collective role of soil
Soil
Soil is a natural body consisting of layers of mineral constituents of variable thicknesses, which differ from the parent materials in their morphological, physical, chemical, and mineralogical characteristics...
s and vegetation that has an effect on the root cause of the problem, recharge. Soil health
Soil health
Soil health is an assessment of ability of a soil to meet its range of ecosystem functions as appropriate to its environment.- Aspects of soil health :The term soil health is used to assess the ability of a soil to:...
cannot be ignored as a valuable and extensive activity for the management of dryland salinity – the multiple benefits of improving soil health are clear and can be motivated by the potential for local and regional economic and social gains.
Soil is considered in two contexts when it comes to dryland salinity: Recharge and discharge.
Soils in groundwater recharge areas
Soils absorb and store water according to their water holding or field capacity
Field capacity
Field capacity is the amount of soil moisture or water content held in soil after excess water has drained away and the rate of downward movement has materially decreased, which usually takes place within 2–3 days after a rain or irrigation in pervious soils of uniform structure and texture...
and how dry they are to start with. In much of Victoria, under typical rainfall and natural vegetation cover, soils take on water during wet winters and dry out over summers as plants consume the water (Young & Young, 2001). The drier the soil when leading into winter, the more water can be stored that might otherwise leak to groundwater.
To reduce recharge to levels that existed in pre-clearing conditions is generally infeasible in most agricultural landscapes. This is because there are too few profitable perennials that can replace crops or that can be adopted at the scale required. In most recharge areas, that are at risk of future salinity, the goal is to minimise recharge. This can be done by planting wide-spaced trees (alley farming), areas of perennials on suitable soils, and by preventing soils from being left without a significant leaf area in winter and spring. In recharge areas remote from saline areas there is often little incentive for farmers to adopt low profit, low recharge systems. In addition, recharge is the source of fresh groundwater, and a trade off between consumptive use and salinity should be acknowledged.
Soils in groundwater discharge areas
The manifestation of dryland salinity is largely a problem of groundwater – however the accumulation of salt within the soil and at the surface due to proximity to or saturation by saline groundwater causes changes to the soil’s chemistry, structure and stability, and the plant life that it supports.
Managing soils for dryland salinity in catchments
In discharge areas, salinity can be managed by establishing salt tolerant plants and/or by engineering systems. Engineering systems include deep open drains, pumps, siphons and various forms of surface water management. Engineering system involve the obvious discharge of salt and water. While saline areas also disharge salt and water, the abundance and timing will be changed. In most Australian States, farmers would be advised to seek advice before using engineering systems.
Establishing salt-tolerant plants can improve salt discharge rates and improve soil health. Improvements undertaken at a catchment scale bring many benefits, not the least of which is providing for increased agricultural and associated regional productivity – utilising water for production that otherwise would contributed to an environmental problem.