Dual language
Encyclopedia
Dual language is a form of education in which students are taught literacy and content in two languages. The majority of dual language programs in the United States teach in English
and Spanish
, although increasing numbers of programs use a partner language other than Spanish, such as Arabic
, Chinese
, French
, Hawaiian
, Japanese
, or Korean
. Dual language programs use the partner language for at least half of the instructional day in the elementary years.
Dual language programs generally start in kindergarten
or first grade
and extend for at least five years, although many continue into middle school
and high school
. There is one higher education (baccalaureate and masters) program in Florida. These programs aim for bilingualism (the ability to speak fluently in two languages), biliteracy (the ability to read and write in two languages), academic achievement equal to that of students in non-dual language programs, and cross-cultural competence
. Most dual language programs are located in neighborhood public schools, although many are charter
, magnet
, or private school
s.
, served to address the reality that Limited English Proficient(LEP) students were in need of proper instructional support to achieve academic gains, and in turn provided federal funding for primary language instruction in local school districts http://www.rethinkingschools.org/restrict.asp?path=archive/12_03/langhst.shtml. The Lau v. Nichols
ruling of 1974 further affirmed a student’s right to educational opportunity via appropriate instructional services (Calderón, 2000). Schools were thus charged with the mission to implement programs suitable to the needs of their language minority students.
While the number of dual immersion programs remained relatively low throughout the mid-1980s, a greater attention to the need to provide challenging yet comprehensible (Calderón, 2000) instruction to English language learners (ELLs), in more recent years, triggered a substantial growth in the number of programs. In 2002, for example, the implementation of the English Language Acquisition, Language Enhancement, and Academic Achievement Act of the No Child Left Behind Act
, subsequently made it requisite that schools with large numbers of language minority students receive instruction that facilitates their acquisition of English, to consequently perform well on standardized tests http://www.nabe.org/nclb.html. There are presently three hundred and ninety-eight two-way immersion programs in thirty distinct states and the District of Columbia http://www.cal.org/twi/directory/index.html. The quantity of programs has increased significantly in the last decade, despite efforts made in states such as Arizona and California to eradicate bilingual education programs in favor of English-immersion, with the passing of Proposition 203 and Proposition 227, respectively. It is estimated ninety-four percent of the dual immersion programs are Spanish/English, with the remaining six percent either Chinese/English, Navajo/English, Japanese/English, and Korean/English programs (Bae, 2007).
The term "dual language" is often used interchangeably with two-way immersion. Other variations on dual language include "dual language immersion," "dual immersion," and "dual enrollment". The term bilingual education
has somewhat fallen out of favor among dual language practitioners, but it is still used to refer to any program that uses two languages for instruction.
Dual language programs are different from transitional bilingual programs, where the aim is to transition students out of their native language and, in the United States
, into English as quickly as possibly, usually in three years. This is sometimes referred to as subtractive bilingualism since the first language is typically lost as English is acquired. Dual dual language programs are considered to promote "additive bilingualism", meaning that students' primary language is developed and maintained as a second language is added.
Another type of program that is not considered dual language is foreign language education
where students receive less than half a day studying in the partner language, and often only study language arts and literature in that language as opposed to content area subjects such as mathematics
, science
, and social studies
.
1. Amount of time spent in the partner language
2. Division of languages
1. Time Spent in Partner Language
There is currently no research indicating that one of these methods is preferable to another, although some research indicates that students who spend more time in the partner language do better in that language (Howard, Christian, & Genesee, 2003; Lindholm-Leary, 2001; Lindholm-Leary & Howard, in press), and that language minority students (in the U.S., those whose native language is not English) do better academically when their native language is supported and developed (Thomas & Collier, 1997; 2002).
Some schools, like Alicia R. Chacon Elementary School
in El Paso, Texas
include a third language for a small portion of the day at all grade levels.
Full immersion (90/10) programs typically begin literacy
instruction for students in kindergarten and first grade in the partner language and add formal literacy in English in second or third grade. Students do not need to relearn how to read in English; teachers help them transfer their literacy skills from one language to the other. Other 90/10 programs separate students by native language and provide initial literacy instruction in the native language, adding second language literacy by second or third grade. In partial immersion or 50/50 programs, initial literacy instruction is either provided simultaneously in both languages to all students, or students are separated by native language in order to receive initial literacy in his or her native language.
Dual language programs in middle school
and high school
often merge students from several dual language elementary schools and exist as programs within larger mainstream schools. They often offer dual language students the opportunity to take language arts and at least one content area in the partner language, and many prepare students to take the Advanced Placement exams.
2. Division of Languages
Dual language teachers also incorporate practices that should be in place in any classroom that includes linguistically diverse students:
In regard to lesson planning, dual language teachers should focus on creating lessons that:
Other important tips for educators teaching bilingual or multilingual students include organizing content around themes, providing students with choice, starting the learning process with students’ questions, and exposing students to not only professional published books and magazines but student-authored literature (Freeman & Freeman, 1994).
For names of more dual language programs not profiled in Wikipedia, see The Directory of Two-Way Bilingual Programs in the U.S. or The Directory of Foreign Language Immersion Programs in U.S. Schools
Both Native English Speakers (NES) and ELLs are beneficiaries of the gains made through TWI. The juxtaposed use of the majority and minority language in TWI programs can enable children to transfer skills from the secondary language to their primary language and viceversa (Scanlan, 2009). Research comparing the academic achievement made by native speakers of English and native speakers of Spanish illustrates that while both groups show growth in their native and secondary language, English native speakers are more dominant in their primary language, whereas Spanish native speakers are able to achieve a more balanced form of bilingualism, that is, relatively equal in their ability to communicate orally and in writing in their primary and secondary language (Howard et al. 2003, p. 36).
The evidence of the effectiveness of TWI is consistent in programs where less common languages are maintained as well. For example, an eight year study of the Navajo/English two-way bilingual program at the Rough Rock Community School in northeastern Arizona confirms that those students who received thorough instruction in their native language as well as the target language encountered more success in school than their peers in English-only programs (McCarty, 2000). Such students too showed progress in both languages in their writing abilities on local and national measures (McCarty, 2000).
In addition to quantitative measures of effectiveness, research has further credited the two-way immersion model as creating more unified communities in public schools amongst parents and caregivers, since speakers of both majority and minority languages are grouped together in an effort to develop literacy skills in both languages and consequently foster cross-cultural relationships in both cultures (Scanlan, 2009). Furthermore, studies have shown that high school students who attended schools with two-way bilingual programs were more motivated and passionate about attaining higher level education (Cobb, 2006).
While such examples attest to the effectiveness of the TWI model, these programs are often voluntary which signifies the inherent difficulty in making comparisons across programs. Academic success and biculturalism may be attributed to the quality of the TWI program, however may also be ascribed to external factors such as a student’s inherent qualities or socioeconomic status (Howard et al. 2003, p. 12). Thus, while standardized test scores, from a policy perspective, are often used to determine the effectiveness of a program, other elements may impact the academic success achieved by many students in the TWI program (Howard et al. 2003, p. 23).
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
and Spanish
Spanish language
Spanish , also known as Castilian , is a Romance language in the Ibero-Romance group that evolved from several languages and dialects in central-northern Iberia around the 9th century and gradually spread with the expansion of the Kingdom of Castile into central and southern Iberia during the...
, although increasing numbers of programs use a partner language other than Spanish, such as Arabic
Arabic language
Arabic is a name applied to the descendants of the Classical Arabic language of the 6th century AD, used most prominently in the Quran, the Islamic Holy Book...
, Chinese
Chinese language
The Chinese language is a language or language family consisting of varieties which are mutually intelligible to varying degrees. Originally the indigenous languages spoken by the Han Chinese in China, it forms one of the branches of Sino-Tibetan family of languages...
, French
French language
French is a Romance language spoken as a first language in France, the Romandy region in Switzerland, Wallonia and Brussels in Belgium, Monaco, the regions of Quebec and Acadia in Canada, and by various communities elsewhere. Second-language speakers of French are distributed throughout many parts...
, Hawaiian
Hawaiian language
The Hawaiian language is a Polynesian language that takes its name from Hawaii, the largest island in the tropical North Pacific archipelago where it developed. Hawaiian, along with English, is an official language of the state of Hawaii...
, Japanese
Japanese language
is a language spoken by over 130 million people in Japan and in Japanese emigrant communities. It is a member of the Japonic language family, which has a number of proposed relationships with other languages, none of which has gained wide acceptance among historical linguists .Japanese is an...
, or Korean
Korean language
Korean is the official language of the country Korea, in both South and North. It is also one of the two official languages in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture in People's Republic of China. There are about 78 million Korean speakers worldwide. In the 15th century, a national writing...
. Dual language programs use the partner language for at least half of the instructional day in the elementary years.
Dual language programs generally start in kindergarten
Kindergarten
A kindergarten is a preschool educational institution for children. The term was created by Friedrich Fröbel for the play and activity institute that he created in 1837 in Bad Blankenburg as a social experience for children for their transition from home to school...
or first grade
First grade
First grade is a year of primary education in schools in the United States and English-speaking provinces of Canada. It is the first school year after kindergarten...
and extend for at least five years, although many continue into middle school
Middle school
Middle School and Junior High School are levels of schooling between elementary and high schools. Most school systems use one term or the other, not both. The terms are not interchangeable...
and high school
High school
High school is a term used in parts of the English speaking world to describe institutions which provide all or part of secondary education. The term is often incorporated into the name of such institutions....
. There is one higher education (baccalaureate and masters) program in Florida. These programs aim for bilingualism (the ability to speak fluently in two languages), biliteracy (the ability to read and write in two languages), academic achievement equal to that of students in non-dual language programs, and cross-cultural competence
Cultural competence
Cultural competence refers to an ability to interact effectively with people of different cultures, particularly in the context of human resources, non-profit organizations, and government agencies whose employees work with persons from different cultural/ethnic backgrounds.Cultural competence...
. Most dual language programs are located in neighborhood public schools, although many are charter
Charter school
Charter schools are primary or secondary schools that receive public money but are not subject to some of the rules, regulations, and statutes that apply to other public schools in exchange for some type of accountability for producing certain results, which are set forth in each school's charter...
, magnet
Magnet school
In education in the United States, magnet schools are public schools with specialized courses or curricula. "Magnet" refers to how the schools draw students from across the normal boundaries defined by authorities as school zones that feed into certain schools.There are magnet schools at the...
, or private school
Private school
Private schools, also known as independent schools or nonstate schools, are not administered by local, state or national governments; thus, they retain the right to select their students and are funded in whole or in part by charging their students' tuition, rather than relying on mandatory...
s.
Historical Context of Two-Way Immersion
The initiation of dual immersion programs in the United States is characterized by the coalescence of local politicians and community members. Coral Way Elementary, an K-8 school in Dade County, Florida, is cited as the first two-way bilingual school, beginning in 1963 http://coralwayelementary.dadeschools.net/About%20Us%202.htm. The program was started by Cuban citizens, who were seeking refuge in Florida from the Castro regime, and believed that their children would eventually return to Cuban schools http://coralwayelementary.dadeschools.net/About%20Us%202.htm. The Ecole Bilingue, a French/English school in Massachusetts too was formed around the same time http://www.english-schools.org/USA/french-american-international-school-boston.htm. In 1968, the passing of the Bilingual Education ActBilingual Education Act
The Bilingual Education Act, Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1968 was the first piece of United States federal legislation that recognized the needs of Limited English Speaking Ability students. The BEA was introduced in 1967 by Texas senator Ralph Yarborough and was...
, served to address the reality that Limited English Proficient(LEP) students were in need of proper instructional support to achieve academic gains, and in turn provided federal funding for primary language instruction in local school districts http://www.rethinkingschools.org/restrict.asp?path=archive/12_03/langhst.shtml. The Lau v. Nichols
Lau v. Nichols
Lau v. Nichols, 414 U.S. 563 , was a civil rights case that was brought by Chinese American students living in San Francisco, California who had limited English proficiency...
ruling of 1974 further affirmed a student’s right to educational opportunity via appropriate instructional services (Calderón, 2000). Schools were thus charged with the mission to implement programs suitable to the needs of their language minority students.
While the number of dual immersion programs remained relatively low throughout the mid-1980s, a greater attention to the need to provide challenging yet comprehensible (Calderón, 2000) instruction to English language learners (ELLs), in more recent years, triggered a substantial growth in the number of programs. In 2002, for example, the implementation of the English Language Acquisition, Language Enhancement, and Academic Achievement Act of the No Child Left Behind Act
No Child Left Behind Act
The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 is a United States Act of Congress concerning the education of children in public schools.NCLB was originally proposed by the administration of George W. Bush immediately after he took office...
, subsequently made it requisite that schools with large numbers of language minority students receive instruction that facilitates their acquisition of English, to consequently perform well on standardized tests http://www.nabe.org/nclb.html. There are presently three hundred and ninety-eight two-way immersion programs in thirty distinct states and the District of Columbia http://www.cal.org/twi/directory/index.html. The quantity of programs has increased significantly in the last decade, despite efforts made in states such as Arizona and California to eradicate bilingual education programs in favor of English-immersion, with the passing of Proposition 203 and Proposition 227, respectively. It is estimated ninety-four percent of the dual immersion programs are Spanish/English, with the remaining six percent either Chinese/English, Navajo/English, Japanese/English, and Korean/English programs (Bae, 2007).
Changes in the TWI Model Since its First Implementation
One of the most salient changes that has occurred in the two-way immersion program since its inception, is its conversion from a program centered predominately on aiding ELLs to develop fluency in English to an enrichment program striving for biliteracy, bilingualism and biculturalism for all students participating. Although two-way immersion was initially focused on supporting ELLs in their development and acquisition of English literacy skills, the need to develop bilingualism in an increasingly globalized society has made the program appealing for many parents of children who are native speakers of English (Calderón, 2000). Whereas foreign language education programs can provide native speakers of English with exposure to a second language, TWI has the potential to help students achieve near fluency in a second language. This suggests that such programs are not solely focused on helping ELLs to acquire English, but instead aim to develop second language proficiency for native speakers of English. In fact, because two-way immersion requires almost an equal amount of native English and native Spanish speakers, if the former is lacking, it is likely that such programs will not be implemented, which implies that the latter may not receive the opportunity to take part in the dual immersion program (Gomez, 2005).Types of Dual Language Program
There are four main types of dual language programs, which mainly differ in the population:- Developmental, or maintenance, bilingual programs. These enroll primarily students who are native speakers of the partner language.
- Two-way (bilingual) immersion programs. These enroll a balance of native English speakers and native speakers of the partner language.
- Foreign language immersion, language immersionLanguage immersionLanguage immersion is a method of teaching a second language in which the target language is used as the means of instruction. Unlike more traditional language courses, where the target language is simply the subject material, language immersion uses the target language as a teaching tool,...
or one-way immersion. These enroll primarily native English speakers. - Heritage language programs. These mainly enroll students who are dominant in English but whose parents, grandparents, or other ancestors spoke the partner language.
The term "dual language" is often used interchangeably with two-way immersion. Other variations on dual language include "dual language immersion," "dual immersion," and "dual enrollment". The term bilingual education
Bilingual education
Bilingual education involves teaching academic content in two languages, in a native and secondary language with varying amounts of each language used in accordance with the program model.-Bilingual education program models:...
has somewhat fallen out of favor among dual language practitioners, but it is still used to refer to any program that uses two languages for instruction.
Dual language programs are different from transitional bilingual programs, where the aim is to transition students out of their native language and, in the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
, into English as quickly as possibly, usually in three years. This is sometimes referred to as subtractive bilingualism since the first language is typically lost as English is acquired. Dual dual language programs are considered to promote "additive bilingualism", meaning that students' primary language is developed and maintained as a second language is added.
Another type of program that is not considered dual language is foreign language education
Language education
Language education is the teaching and learning of a foreign or second language. Language education is a branch of applied linguistics.- Need for language education :...
where students receive less than half a day studying in the partner language, and often only study language arts and literature in that language as opposed to content area subjects such as mathematics
Mathematics
Mathematics is the study of quantity, space, structure, and change. Mathematicians seek out patterns and formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proofs, which are arguments sufficient to convince other mathematicians of their validity...
, science
Science
Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe...
, and social studies
Social studies
Social studies is the "integrated study of the social sciences and humanities to promote civic competence," as defined by the American National Council for the Social Studies...
.
Variation within Dual Language Programs
There are two main variations:1. Amount of time spent in the partner language
2. Division of languages
1. Time Spent in Partner Language
- Full immersion, or 90/10, programs teach in the partner language 90% of the time in the primary grades (usually kindergarten and first grade) and 10% in English, and gradually adjust the ratio each year until the partner language is used 50% and English is used 50% by thirdThird gradeIn the United States, third grade is a year of primary education. It is the third school year after kindergarten. Students are usually 8 – 9 years old, depending on when their birthday occurs....
or fourth gradeFourth gradeFourth grade is a year of education in the United States and many other nations. The fourth grade is the fourth school year after kindergarten. Students are usually 9 or 10 years old, depending on their birthday. It is a part of elementary school. In some parts of the United States, fourth grade...
(sometimes later if the program extends through eighth gradeEighth gradeEighth grade is a year of education in the United States, Canada, Australia and other nations. Students are usually 13 - 14 years old. The eighth grade is typically the final grade before high school, and the ninth grade of public and private education, following kindergarten and subsequent grades...
or beyond). - Partial immersion, or 50/50, programs teach 50% of the day in English and 50% of the day in the partner language at all grade levels.
There is currently no research indicating that one of these methods is preferable to another, although some research indicates that students who spend more time in the partner language do better in that language (Howard, Christian, & Genesee, 2003; Lindholm-Leary, 2001; Lindholm-Leary & Howard, in press), and that language minority students (in the U.S., those whose native language is not English) do better academically when their native language is supported and developed (Thomas & Collier, 1997; 2002).
Some schools, like Alicia R. Chacon Elementary School
Ysleta Independent School District
Ysleta Independent School District is a school district based in El Paso, Texas . Ysleta ISD is the second largest school district in the city of El Paso.Ysleta Independent School District is a school district based in El Paso, Texas...
in El Paso, Texas
El Paso, Texas
El Paso, is a city in and the county seat of El Paso County, Texas, United States, and lies in far West Texas. In the 2010 census, the city had a population of 649,121. It is the sixth largest city in Texas and the 19th largest city in the United States...
include a third language for a small portion of the day at all grade levels.
Full immersion (90/10) programs typically begin literacy
Literacy
Literacy has traditionally been described as the ability to read for knowledge, write coherently and think critically about printed material.Literacy represents the lifelong, intellectual process of gaining meaning from print...
instruction for students in kindergarten and first grade in the partner language and add formal literacy in English in second or third grade. Students do not need to relearn how to read in English; teachers help them transfer their literacy skills from one language to the other. Other 90/10 programs separate students by native language and provide initial literacy instruction in the native language, adding second language literacy by second or third grade. In partial immersion or 50/50 programs, initial literacy instruction is either provided simultaneously in both languages to all students, or students are separated by native language in order to receive initial literacy in his or her native language.
Dual language programs in middle school
Middle school
Middle School and Junior High School are levels of schooling between elementary and high schools. Most school systems use one term or the other, not both. The terms are not interchangeable...
and high school
High school
High school is a term used in parts of the English speaking world to describe institutions which provide all or part of secondary education. The term is often incorporated into the name of such institutions....
often merge students from several dual language elementary schools and exist as programs within larger mainstream schools. They often offer dual language students the opportunity to take language arts and at least one content area in the partner language, and many prepare students to take the Advanced Placement exams.
2. Division of Languages
- Language division by schedule: Within any dual language program, students speak and study in one language at a time, and the times for each language are explicitly defined. There is great variation, however, in the specifics. In some programs, language alternates by day, by week, or by several week periods. In other schools, students speak one language in the morning and the other language after lunch. After a designated amount of time, one, two, or more weeks, the morning and afternoon languages switch. Further variation includes programs where particular subjects are always taught in one language, due to resource availability. Within a given school or program, there may be different schedules for different grades, such as at the Amistad Dual Language School in New York City, where students alternate languages less frequently as they progress through the grades and establish stronger skills in both languages.
- Language division by instructor: A dual language program may use a Self-Contained or Side-by-Side model. Self-Contained programs have one teacher for one group of students in one classroom. The teacher transitions from one language to the other along with her or his students. Alternatively, Side-by-Side programs have two or more classrooms for each grade, where one teacher teaches in the partner, or target, language and the other teacher teaches in the dominant language (English in the United States). The grade is divided into two groups of students and the groups trade classrooms and teachers according to an explicit schedule, whether daily or weekly. Finally, at some schools, two or more teachers may team teach in the same classroom, with each teacher using one language and a combination of whole group, small group, and independent activities facilitated by the teachers.
Instruction in Dual Language Programs
Dual language programs vary in the kinds of instruction they provide, but generally implement many of the following features:- language artsLanguage artsTraditionally, the primary divisions in the language arts are Literature and Language, where language in this case refers to both linguistics, and specific languages....
instruction in both program languages - instruction on literacy skills like phonicsPhonicsPhonics refers to a method for teaching speakers of English to read and write that language. Phonics involves teaching how to connect the sounds of spoken English with letters or groups of letters and teaching them to blend the sounds of letters together to produce approximate pronunciations...
and fluencyFluencyFluency is the property of a person or of a system that delivers information quickly and with expertise.-Speech:...
along with opportunities to read literatureLiteratureLiterature is the art of written works, and is not bound to published sources...
in both languages - sheltered instructionSheltered instructionSheltered instruction is an approach to teaching English language learners which integrates language and content instruction. The dual goals of sheltered instruction are:# to provide access to mainstream, grade-level content, and...
strategies in both languages - ability groupingAbility groupingAbility grouping is the educational practice of grouping students by academic potential or past achievement.Ability groups are usually small, informal groups formed within a single classroom. Assignment to an ability group is often short-term , and varies by subject...
for targeted purposes, with frequent reassessment based on strengths and weaknesses on different skills - separation of languages, where the teacher will only speak one language at a time without translating, while allowing students to use native language resources such as peers and bilingual dictionaries
- ample time for student interaction (such as through the use of cooperative learning), allowing students to practice their new language skills with their peers
Dual language teachers also incorporate practices that should be in place in any classroom that includes linguistically diverse students:
- Teaching content so that it interests and challenges bilingual students
- Communicating high expectations, respect, and interest in each of their students
- Understanding the roles of language, race, culture, and gender in schooling
- Engaging parents and community in the education of their children
- Becoming knowledgeable about and developing strategies to educate bilingual students and to communicate with their families
- Seeking and obtaining the professional development needed to engender these attitudes, knowledge bases and specific instructional skills (Garcia, 2005).
In regard to lesson planning, dual language teachers should focus on creating lessons that:
- proceed from whole to part
- are learner centered
- have meaning and purpose for students and connection to their present lives
- engage groups of students in social interaction
- develop both oral and written language
- show faith in the learner in order to expand students’ potential (Freeman & Freeman, 1994)
Other important tips for educators teaching bilingual or multilingual students include organizing content around themes, providing students with choice, starting the learning process with students’ questions, and exposing students to not only professional published books and magazines but student-authored literature (Freeman & Freeman, 1994).
American programs
- Key Elementary School in Arlington, VAFrancis Scott Key Elementary School (Arlington, Virginia)Francis Scott Key Elementary School is one of the eighteen elementary schools in Arlington, Virginia, just outside of Washington, D.C.. It is a countywide school, meaning that it draw students from various neighborhoods in the county...
- Shuang Wen School in New York CityShuang Wen SchoolP.S. 184M Shuang Wen School , a public school in New York City also known as P.S. 184M, is a bilingual elementary school located on the Lower East Side, Manhattan, a step away from Chinatown, Manhattan.The school teaches pre-kindergarten to 8th grade...
- Shuang Wen Academy Network in New York CityShuang wen academy networkThe Shuang Wen Academy Network is a 501-C3 non-profit organization based in New York City. The proposed mission of SWAN during its inception was the "development of dual language and dual cultural identities for...its students."...
- Amistad Dual Language School in New York City
- High School for Dual Language & Asian Studies in New York City
- Escuela de Guadalupe in Denver, CO
- The International School in Portland, ORThe International SchoolThe International School is an independent elementary school in Portland, Oregon that educates children to be world citizens. TIS provides true immersion in Spanish, Mandarin Chinese, and Japanese with native-speaking teachers. Children age 3 through 5th grade become fluent in another language,...
- Coral Way Bilingual K-8 Center in Miami, FL
- Inter-American Magnet School in Chicago, ILInter-American Magnet SchoolInter-American Magnet School is one of the oldest and most comprehensive dual language schools in the Midwestern United States. Children learn to speak, read and write fluently in both Spanish and English...
- Otay Ranch High School in Chula Vista, CAOtay Ranch High SchoolOtay Ranch High School is a high school established in 2003 with 97 classrooms. It is located in Chula Vista, California. Otay Ranch High School primarily serves the Chula Vista developments of Otay Ranch and Rancho Del Rey.-History:...
- Rancho Del Rey Middle School in Chula Vista, CA
- Chula Vista Learning Community Charter (CVLCC)
For names of more dual language programs not profiled in Wikipedia, see The Directory of Two-Way Bilingual Programs in the U.S. or The Directory of Foreign Language Immersion Programs in U.S. Schools
Effectiveness of Two-Way Immersion
Two-way immersion has been referred to as the most effective bilingual program contributing to long-term academic success (Howard et al. 2003, p. 24). Thorough planning and effective implementation are crucial to the success of TWI programs, in addition to ample support from administrators and access to quality resources. In well-implemented programs, ELLs have achieved higher academic success than their peers in other bilingual programs (Dorner, 2011). Effective implementation, for one, lies in the duration of the program. In order to produce academic achievement, students ideally must be enrolled in TWI programs for four to seven years (Howard et al. 2003, p. 24). Students participating in TWI programs for this length of time have been shown to demonstrate higher academic performance than their peers in English-immersion programs (Howard et al. 2003, p. 24). On the contrary, students who receive little to no instruction in their native language, during their elementary years, struggle to attain grade level performance in the target language (Cobb, 2006).Both Native English Speakers (NES) and ELLs are beneficiaries of the gains made through TWI. The juxtaposed use of the majority and minority language in TWI programs can enable children to transfer skills from the secondary language to their primary language and viceversa (Scanlan, 2009). Research comparing the academic achievement made by native speakers of English and native speakers of Spanish illustrates that while both groups show growth in their native and secondary language, English native speakers are more dominant in their primary language, whereas Spanish native speakers are able to achieve a more balanced form of bilingualism, that is, relatively equal in their ability to communicate orally and in writing in their primary and secondary language (Howard et al. 2003, p. 36).
The evidence of the effectiveness of TWI is consistent in programs where less common languages are maintained as well. For example, an eight year study of the Navajo/English two-way bilingual program at the Rough Rock Community School in northeastern Arizona confirms that those students who received thorough instruction in their native language as well as the target language encountered more success in school than their peers in English-only programs (McCarty, 2000). Such students too showed progress in both languages in their writing abilities on local and national measures (McCarty, 2000).
In addition to quantitative measures of effectiveness, research has further credited the two-way immersion model as creating more unified communities in public schools amongst parents and caregivers, since speakers of both majority and minority languages are grouped together in an effort to develop literacy skills in both languages and consequently foster cross-cultural relationships in both cultures (Scanlan, 2009). Furthermore, studies have shown that high school students who attended schools with two-way bilingual programs were more motivated and passionate about attaining higher level education (Cobb, 2006).
While such examples attest to the effectiveness of the TWI model, these programs are often voluntary which signifies the inherent difficulty in making comparisons across programs. Academic success and biculturalism may be attributed to the quality of the TWI program, however may also be ascribed to external factors such as a student’s inherent qualities or socioeconomic status (Howard et al. 2003, p. 12). Thus, while standardized test scores, from a policy perspective, are often used to determine the effectiveness of a program, other elements may impact the academic success achieved by many students in the TWI program (Howard et al. 2003, p. 23).
External links
- National Dual Language Consortium http://www.dual-language.org
- The Center for Applied Linguistics' Two-Way Immersion Site http://www.cal.org/twi
- Dual Language Education of New Mexico http://www.dlenm.org
- Illinois Resource Center http://www.thecenterweb.org/irc/index.html
- Dual U http://www.dualu.org
- 2-Way CABE http://www.bilingualeducation.org/2waycabe
- Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition http://www.carla.umn.edu/
- CORAL WAY BILINGUAL K-8 CENTER, "About Coral Way...Two Languages Two Worlds of Opportunity." http://coralwayelementary.dadeschools.net/About%20Us%202.htm
- Kathryn Lindholm-Leary's Web Site http://www.lindholm-leary.com/
- National Association for Bilingual Education (NABE) http://www.nabe.org
- California Department of Education's Two-Way Immersion page http://www.cde.ca.gov/sp/el/ip/index.asp
- SEER English Spanish Educational Resources http://www.seeredu.com
- Idiomax Translation Software Translation from/to English, Spanish, French, Italian
- Word Magic English Spanish Translation Software http://www.wordmagicsoft.com
- Texas Two-Way http://texastwoway.org
- Multilingual Mania http://www.multilingualmania.com
- Rethinking Schools Online, "History of Bilingual Education." Last modified 2003. http://www.rethinkingschools.org/restrict.asp?path=archive/12_03/langhst.shtml
- World Wide Schools, "Ecole Bilingue, French-American International School of Boston." http://www.english-schools.org/USA/french-american-international-school-boston.htm