Dutch orthography
Encyclopedia
Dutch orthography uses the Latin alphabet
according to a system which has evolved to suit the needs of the Dutch language
. The regular relationship of graphemes to phonemes is listed in the article on Dutch language. This article will explain the present spelling system, and then trace the development of Dutch spelling as it has evolved from the Middle Ages
through to the last two centuries when frequent government decrees sought to improve and simplify the system.
is fairly logical. For the foreign learner it is relatively easy as, once one knows the system, one can almost always deduce pronunciation from spelling, if proper names and foreign loan-words are discounted. For Dutch children learning to write, the system is not quite so kind, as the reverse operation, deducing spelling from pronunciation, is more complicated: /k/ can be spelled ⟨c⟩ or ⟨k⟩ in loan words for example, and ⟨ou⟩ and ⟨au⟩ sound the same, as well as ⟨ij⟩ and ⟨ei⟩ in the standard dialect. Critics also complain that even when the system is regular it is occasionally antiquated: the digraphs
⟨ie⟩ and ⟨oe⟩ are spelled in this way because they were once diphthong
s, but now they are simple vowels /i/ and /u/; the combination ⟨sch⟩ for /s/ in the ending -isch is also historically conditioned. All in all, at least among the Western European languages, Dutch is closer than average to a phonemic spelling.
, a system has come into use indicating vowels by an intricate system of single and double vowels or consonants. The same letter is used to indicate a pair of vowels that are close to each other in the IPA vowel space. Depending on the particular phonological treatise, the members of each pair are given various names: sharp/dull, clear/dim, free/checked
, tense/lax
, open/closed, long/short. Although vowel length
is generally not phonemic in Dutch, one of each pair is pronounced slightly longer by many speakers, so the naming long/short is traditionally used to explain the orthography system and will be used here as well, even though some of the other indications might be more accurate.
Some linguists propose using /ɵ/ instead of /ʏ/ as a more precise rendition for the short u. The length sign, ⟨ː⟩, is somewhat arbitrary as it does not mark a phonemic difference, the actual length varies with stress and the speed of speech.
The spelling rules for a, e, o, u are very regular, apart from e also being used for the neutral schwa sound /ə/ in unstressed syllables, thus giving it three possible interpretations. As the position of the stress in a polysyllabic word is not indicated in the spelling this may lead to some confusion.
The following basic rules are simple:
More confusing for learners is the additional rule for polysyllabic words:
Much confusion is caused by the many words that change their vowel in declensions. For example the plural of lot is loten, not lotten as would be regular. So in fact:
Similarly vat changes vowel to vaten and gebed to gebeden.
pad has two plurals according to the meaning:
paden (paths) or padden (toads).
Rules for i are more complicated. In the past the language did indeed have a doubled ii. To avoid confusion with a handwritten u, it became customary to lengthen the second i to a letter j, thus forming ij, initially pronounced (as it still is in some dialects) as a long /iː/. In the standard language the sound shifted to a diphthong /ɛi/. In the modern language the older /ie/ or /iə/ diphthong has shifted to /i/, but retains its original spelling as ie, even in open syllables. In loanwords, however, a single i is often used.
When mid-closed long vowels appear in front of an 'r', they are raised to near-closed vowels. The (normally short) vowels /i/, /y/ and /u/ are lengthened before r, or may be dipthongized with an epenthetic /ə/. Compare e.g:
The vowel /øː/ does not possess a short version. The vowel /u/ does not possess a long version except for the aforementioned lengthening before r.
The rule is that words ending in voiceless consonants take the voiceless -t-, voiced consonants the voiced d. Dutch children are taught the rule 't kofschip is met thee beladen, ("the merchant ship is loaded with tea"), that is, if the verb stem in the infinitive ends with the consonants of 't kofschip (-t, -k, -f, -s, -ch or -p), the past tense dental is a -t-; otherwise it is a -d-.
Latin alphabet
The Latin alphabet, also called the Roman alphabet, is the most recognized alphabet used in the world today. It evolved from a western variety of the Greek alphabet called the Cumaean alphabet, which was adopted and modified by the Etruscans who ruled early Rome...
according to a system which has evolved to suit the needs of the Dutch language
Dutch language
Dutch is a West Germanic language and the native language of the majority of the population of the Netherlands, Belgium, and Suriname, the three member states of the Dutch Language Union. Most speakers live in the European Union, where it is a first language for about 23 million and a second...
. The regular relationship of graphemes to phonemes is listed in the article on Dutch language. This article will explain the present spelling system, and then trace the development of Dutch spelling as it has evolved from the Middle Ages
Middle Ages
The Middle Ages is a periodization of European history from the 5th century to the 15th century. The Middle Ages follows the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and precedes the Early Modern Era. It is the middle period of a three-period division of Western history: Classic, Medieval and Modern...
through to the last two centuries when frequent government decrees sought to improve and simplify the system.
Regularity
Dutch orthographyOrthography
The orthography of a language specifies a standardized way of using a specific writing system to write the language. Where more than one writing system is used for a language, for example Kurdish, Uyghur, Serbian or Inuktitut, there can be more than one orthography...
is fairly logical. For the foreign learner it is relatively easy as, once one knows the system, one can almost always deduce pronunciation from spelling, if proper names and foreign loan-words are discounted. For Dutch children learning to write, the system is not quite so kind, as the reverse operation, deducing spelling from pronunciation, is more complicated: /k/ can be spelled ⟨c⟩ or ⟨k⟩ in loan words for example, and ⟨ou⟩ and ⟨au⟩ sound the same, as well as ⟨ij⟩ and ⟨ei⟩ in the standard dialect. Critics also complain that even when the system is regular it is occasionally antiquated: the digraphs
Digraph (orthography)
A digraph or digram is a pair of characters used to write one phoneme or a sequence of phonemes that does not correspond to the normal values of the two characters combined...
⟨ie⟩ and ⟨oe⟩ are spelled in this way because they were once diphthong
Diphthong
A diphthong , also known as a gliding vowel, refers to two adjacent vowel sounds occurring within the same syllable. Technically, a diphthong is a vowel with two different targets: That is, the tongue moves during the pronunciation of the vowel...
s, but now they are simple vowels /i/ and /u/; the combination ⟨sch⟩ for /s/ in the ending -isch is also historically conditioned. All in all, at least among the Western European languages, Dutch is closer than average to a phonemic spelling.
Present spelling system
The spelling system of the Dutch language is issued by government decree and is compulsory for all government documentation and educational establishments.Basic graphemes
|
|
|
Double vowels or consonants
Since Dutch has many more vowels than the Latin alphabetLatin alphabet
The Latin alphabet, also called the Roman alphabet, is the most recognized alphabet used in the world today. It evolved from a western variety of the Greek alphabet called the Cumaean alphabet, which was adopted and modified by the Etruscans who ruled early Rome...
, a system has come into use indicating vowels by an intricate system of single and double vowels or consonants. The same letter is used to indicate a pair of vowels that are close to each other in the IPA vowel space. Depending on the particular phonological treatise, the members of each pair are given various names: sharp/dull, clear/dim, free/checked
Checked and free vowels
In phonetics and phonology, checked vowels are those that usually must be followed by a consonant in a stressed syllable, while free vowels are those that may stand in a stressed open syllable with no following consonant.-Usage:...
, tense/lax
Tenseness
In phonology, tenseness is a particular vowel quality that is phonemically contrastive in many languages, including English. It has also occasionally been used to describe contrasts in consonants. Unlike most distinctive features, the feature [tense] can be interpreted only relatively, that is, in...
, open/closed, long/short. Although vowel length
Vowel length
In linguistics, vowel length is the perceived duration of a vowel sound. Often the chroneme, or the "longness", acts like a consonant, and may etymologically be one, such as in Australian English. While not distinctive in most dialects of English, vowel length is an important phonemic factor in...
is generally not phonemic in Dutch, one of each pair is pronounced slightly longer by many speakers, so the naming long/short is traditionally used to explain the orthography system and will be used here as well, even though some of the other indications might be more accurate.
| Written | Long phoneme | Short phoneme |
|---|---|---|
| a | aː | ɑ |
| e | eː | ɛ |
| i | i | ɪ |
| o | oː | ɔ |
| u | y | ʏ |
| oe | u |
Some linguists propose using /ɵ/ instead of /ʏ/ as a more precise rendition for the short u. The length sign, ⟨ː⟩, is somewhat arbitrary as it does not mark a phonemic difference, the actual length varies with stress and the speed of speech.
The spelling rules for a, e, o, u are very regular, apart from e also being used for the neutral schwa sound /ə/ in unstressed syllables, thus giving it three possible interpretations. As the position of the stress in a polysyllabic word is not indicated in the spelling this may lead to some confusion.
The following basic rules are simple:
- A vowel in an open syllable (one ending with the vowel) is long:
- po ('chamber pot') has a long /oː/
- A vowel in a closed syllable (one ending with a consonant) is short, unless the vowel is doubled to show its length:
- pot ('pot') has a short /ɔ/
- poot ('paw') has a long /oː/
More confusing for learners is the additional rule for polysyllabic words:
- The first syllable is open if it is followed by a single consonant, since this consonant belongs to the following syllable. There have to be two consonants for one of them to be closing the first syllable. So:
- poot has plural poten; the "t" belongs to the second syllable so the syllables divide po-ten. As the first syllable is open, a double "oo" is no longer required to mark the long vowel /oː/.
- pot has plural potten; the syllables divide pot-ten, so the double "t" indicates the first syllable is now closed and has the short vowel /ɔ/.
Much confusion is caused by the many words that change their vowel in declensions. For example the plural of lot is loten, not lotten as would be regular. So in fact:
- lot to loten keeps the same spelling "o", but changes sound /ɔ/ to /oː/ (irregular)
- poot to poten changes spelling "oo" to "o", but keeps the same sound /oː/ (regular)
Similarly vat changes vowel to vaten and gebed to gebeden.
pad has two plurals according to the meaning:
paden (paths) or padden (toads).
Rules for i are more complicated. In the past the language did indeed have a doubled ii. To avoid confusion with a handwritten u, it became customary to lengthen the second i to a letter j, thus forming ij, initially pronounced (as it still is in some dialects) as a long /iː/. In the standard language the sound shifted to a diphthong /ɛi/. In the modern language the older /ie/ or /iə/ diphthong has shifted to /i/, but retains its original spelling as ie, even in open syllables. In loanwords, however, a single i is often used.
When mid-closed long vowels appear in front of an 'r', they are raised to near-closed vowels. The (normally short) vowels /i/, /y/ and /u/ are lengthened before r, or may be dipthongized with an epenthetic /ə/. Compare e.g:
- veer: /vɪːr/ (instead of /veːr/)
- deur: /dʏːr/ (instead of /døːr/)
- boord: /bʊːrt/ (instead of /boːrt/)
- dier: /diːr/ or /diər/ (instead of /dir/)
- duur: /dyːr/ or /dyər/ (instead of /dyr/)
- roer: /ruːr/ or /ruər/ (instead of /rur/)
The vowel
't kofschip rule
Weak verbs form their past tenses by addition of a dental, ⟨d⟩ or ⟨t⟩. Because final consonants are always devoiced, there is no difference in pronunciation between these in the participle. However, the orthography operates as though this devoicing did not take place.The rule is that words ending in voiceless consonants take the voiceless -t-, voiced consonants the voiced d. Dutch children are taught the rule 't kofschip is met thee beladen, ("the merchant ship is loaded with tea"), that is, if the verb stem in the infinitive ends with the consonants of 't kofschip (-t, -k, -f, -s, -ch or -p), the past tense dental is a -t-; otherwise it is a -d-.
| Dutch | Meaning | Dutch sentence | English corresponding sentence |
|---|---|---|---|
| werken | to work | ik werkte | I worked |
| krabben | to scratch | ik krabde | I scratched |
See also
- Dutch alphabetDutch alphabetThe modern Dutch alphabet consists of the 26 letters of the ISO basic Latin alphabet and is used for the Dutch language. Five letters are vowels and 21 letters are consonants.- History :...
- History of Dutch orthographyHistory of Dutch orthographyThe History of Dutch Orthography covers the changes in spelling of Dutch both in the Netherlands itself and in the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in Belgium.- Dutch spelling in the Middle Ages :...
- IJ (digraph)
- Nederlandse Taalunie
- English spelling
- Grand Dictation of the Dutch LanguageGrand Dictation of the Dutch LanguageThe Grand Dictation of the Dutch Language is a spelling test organized by the Belgian newspaper De Morgen, the Dutch newspaper de Volkskrant and the Dutch broadcaster NTR....
External links
- De grondbeginselen der Nederlandsche spelling. Ontwerp der spelling voor het aanstaande Nederlandsch Woordenboek (1863) by L.A. te Winkel
- De grondbeginselen der Nederlandsche spelling. Regeling der spelling voor het woordenboek der Nederlandsche taal (1873) by L.A. te Winkel and M. de Vries
- De woordenlijst der Nederlandse taal online (2005) by the Dutch Language Union (Taalunie)
- De witte spelling (2006) by the Society "Onze Taal"
- "New Spelling" of the Dutch language