Economy of Western Ganga kingdom
Encyclopedia
The Economy of Western Ganga kingdom (350
- 1000 CE) refers to the economic structure that existed during the rule of this important ruling dynasty of ancient Karnataka
. They are known as Western Gangas to distinguish them from the Eastern Gangas who in later centuries ruled over modern Orissa
. The Western Ganga sovereignty lasted from about 350 to 550, initially ruling from Kolar
and later moving their capital to Talakad
on the banks of the Kaveri River
in modern Mysore district
. Later, they ruled as an important feudatory of larger empires, the imperial Chalukyas of Badami
and the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta
.
and Kambadahalli
. The kings of this dynasty encouraged the fine arts due to which literature in Kannada and Sanskrit flourished. 9th century Kannada writings refer to King Durvinita
of 6th century as an early writer in Kannada language
prose. Many classics were written on various subjects ranging from religion
to elephant
management.
The Gangavadi region consists of the malnad
region, the plains (Bayaluseemae) and semi-malnad with lower elevation and rolling hills being the buffer region. The main crops of the malnad were paddy, betel
leaves, cardamom and pepper and semi-malnad with its lower altitude produced rice
, millets such as ragi
and corn
, pulses, oilseeds and was the base for cattle farming. The plains to the east are the flat lands fed by Kaveri, Tungabhadra and Vedavati
rivers where cultivation of sugarcane
, paddy, orchard
s of coconut
, areca
nut (adeka totta), betel leaves, plantain
and flowers (vara vana) were cultivated. The importance of excavation of new irrigation tanks and repairs to existing ones are reflected in epigraphs of the period which phrase it as Arasaru Kattida Kere (tank built by the king) Elites such as gavundas (landlord), feudatory rulers, officials, mahajans (Brahmins), traders (setti) and even artisans contributed to tank building. Other sources of water were wells, natural ponds and catchments of dams (Katta). Inscriptions attesting to irrigation of previously uncultivated lands seems to indicate an expanding agrarian community.
Soil types that existed in various parts of the kingdom are mentioned, the earliest reference being a record of black soil (Karimaniya) in the Sinda-8000 territory and to red soil (Kebbayya mannu) Cultivated land was of three types; wet land, dry land and to a lesser extent garden land with paddy being the dominant crop of the region. Wet lands were called kalani, galde, nir mannu or nir panya and was specifically used to denote paddy land requiring standing water. A type of grain was harvested from a tall stout grass called Sejje. Lands adjoining irrigation tanks were called maduvinamannu and was used for coconut and areca nut cultivation if the land was not extensive enough for paddy. Terrace type paddy cultivated land in the highlands was called makki. Millet, wheat (syamaka), barley and pulses were also cultivated to a smaller extent.
The fact that pastoral economies were spread throughout Gangavadi region comes from references to cowherds in many inscriptions. The terms gosahasra (a thousand cows), gasara (owner of cows), gosasi (donor of cows), goyiti (cowherdess), gosasa (protector of cows) attest to this. Donation of a thousand cows are mentioned though the actual number may have been fewer indicating that ownership of cows may have been as important as cultivable land and that there may have existed a social hierarchy based on this. References to shepherds are uncommon though one inscription calls them Kurimbadere and the hamlets where they lived Kuripatti. Inscriptions mention cattle raids attesting to the importance of the pastoral economy, destructive raids, assaults on women (pendir-udeyulcal), abduction of women by bedas (hunter tribes), a result of the existing militarism of the age. Evidence shows that the gavundas, the people closely involved with land, its cultivation and cattle were chiefly involved in both defence against and responsible for such raids.
Lands that were exempt from taxes were called manya and sometimes consisted of several villages. They were granted by local chieftains without any reference to the overlord, indicating a de-centralised economy. These lands, often given to heroes who perished in the line of duty was called bilavritti or kalnad. Sarva parihara (or sarva badha parihara) lands were those that were free from all or most taxes. Talavritti land grants were exempt from tax overheads, made without consent of the king for the maintenance of temples at the time of consecration. Abhyantra siddi was an internal income or revenue payable to the village authorities even lower than the local chieftain. It may have also meant settlement of disputes over land by local authorities. Some types of taxes on income were kara or anthakara (internal taxes), utkota were presents due to the king and hiranya were cash payments and sulika was tolls and duties levied on imported items. Taxes were collected from those who held the right to cultivate land, whether the land was actually cultivated or not.
Siddhaya was a local tax levied on agriculture and pottondi was levied on merchandise by the local feudal ruler. At times, based on context, pottondi meant 1/10 (a fraction), aydalavi meant 1/5, elalavi meant 1/7. Mannadare literally meant land tax and was levied together with shepherds tax (Kurimbadere) payable to the chief of shepherds. Karudere and addadere taxes were collectable by corporate bodies from settlements outside their own area. Bhaga was used to denote portion or share of the produce from land or the land area itself. Minor taxes such as Kirudere due to the landlords, samathadere raised by the army officers (samantha) are mentioned. In addition to taxes for maintenance of the local officer's retinue, villages were obligated to feed armies on the march to and from battle. Waste land and forest land which were more frequently granted in the eastern regions of the kingdom included brahmadeya (grants to Brahmins) and agricultural grants. Bittuvatta or niravari taxes comprised usually of a percentage of the produce and was collected for constructing irrigation tanks.
350
Year 350 was a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Sergius and Nigrinianus...
- 1000 CE) refers to the economic structure that existed during the rule of this important ruling dynasty of ancient Karnataka
Karnataka
Karnataka , the land of the Kannadigas, is a state in South West India. It was created on 1 November 1956, with the passing of the States Reorganisation Act and this day is annually celebrated as Karnataka Rajyotsava...
. They are known as Western Gangas to distinguish them from the Eastern Gangas who in later centuries ruled over modern Orissa
Orissa
Orissa , officially Odisha since Nov 2011, is a state of India, located on the east coast of India, by the Bay of Bengal. It is the modern name of the ancient nation of Kalinga, which was invaded by the Maurya Emperor Ashoka in 261 BC. The modern state of Orissa was established on 1 April...
. The Western Ganga sovereignty lasted from about 350 to 550, initially ruling from Kolar
Kolar
Kolara is a city in the South Indian state of Karnataka. It is the headquarters of Kolar District. It is known for being one of the gold mining sites in India....
and later moving their capital to Talakad
Talakad
Talakad is a desert-like town on the left bank of the Kaveri river at a spot where the river makes a sharp bend. It is 45 km from Mysore and 133 km from Bangalore in Karnataka, India. A historic site, Talakad once had over 30 temples that today are buried in sand. Now it is a scenic...
on the banks of the Kaveri River
Kaveri River
The Kaveri , also spelled Cauvery in English, is a large Indian river. The origin of the river is traditionally placed at Talakaveri, Kodagu in the Western Ghats in Karnataka, flows generally south and east through Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and across the southern Deccan plateau through the...
in modern Mysore district
Mysore district
Mysore District is an administrative district located in the southern part of the state of Karnataka, India. The district is bounded by Mandya district to the northeast, Chamrajanagar district to the southeast, Kerala state to the south, Kodagu district to the west, and Hassan district to the north...
. Later, they ruled as an important feudatory of larger empires, the imperial Chalukyas of Badami
Chalukya dynasty
The Chalukya dynasty was an Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty, known as the "Badami Chalukyas", ruled from Vatapi from the...
and the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta
Rashtrakuta Dynasty
The Rashtrakuta Empire was a royal dynasty ruling large parts of the Indian Subcontinent between the sixth and the 10th centuries. During this period they ruled as several closely related, but individual clans. Rastrakutas in inscriptions represented as descendants of Satyaki, a Yadava well known...
.
Economy
In the late 10th century, major political changes were taking place in the Deccan. The Rashtrakutas were replaced by the emerging Western Chalukya Empire north of the Tungabhadra river and the Chola Dynasty saw renewed power south of the Kaveri river. The defeat of the Western Gangas to Cholas around 1000 resulted in the end of the Ganga influence over the region. Though territorially a small kingdom, the Western Ganga contribution to polity, culture and literature of the modern south Karnataka region is considered important. The Western Ganga kings showed benevolent tolerance to all faiths but are most famous for their patronage towards Jainism resulting in the construction of fine monuments in such places as ShravanabelagolaShravanabelagola
Shravana Belgola is a city located in the Hassan district in the Indian state of Karnataka and is 158 km from Bangalore. The statue of Gommateshvara Bahubali at Śravaṇa Beḷgoḷa is one of the most important pilgrimage destinations in Jainism, one that reached a peak in architectural and sculptural...
and Kambadahalli
Kambadahalli
Kambadahalli is a village in Mandya district of Karnataka state, in southwestern India. Previously known as Kambapuri, it is one of the oldest and most important Jain religious centers in Karnataka. The monuments here were built by the Western Ganga Dynasty in the 9th - 10th century...
. The kings of this dynasty encouraged the fine arts due to which literature in Kannada and Sanskrit flourished. 9th century Kannada writings refer to King Durvinita
Durvinita
Durvinita is seen as the most successful ruler of the Western Ganga Dynasty. Son of the previous ruler, Avinita, Durvinita's assession to the throne was disputed by his brother, who had gained the support of the Pallavas and Kadambas. There are Nallala and Kadagattur inscriptions that refer to...
of 6th century as an early writer in Kannada language
Kannada language
Kannada or , is a language spoken in India predominantly in the state of Karnataka. Kannada, whose native speakers are called Kannadigas and number roughly 50 million, is one of the 30 most spoken languages in the world...
prose. Many classics were written on various subjects ranging from religion
Religion
Religion is a collection of cultural systems, belief systems, and worldviews that establishes symbols that relate humanity to spirituality and, sometimes, to moral values. Many religions have narratives, symbols, traditions and sacred histories that are intended to give meaning to life or to...
to elephant
Elephant
Elephants are large land mammals in two extant genera of the family Elephantidae: Elephas and Loxodonta, with the third genus Mammuthus extinct...
management.
The Gangavadi region consists of the malnad
Malnad
Malenadu is a region of Karnataka state in South India. Malenadu covers the western and eastern slopes of the Western Ghats, roughly 100 kilometers in width. Malenadu covers portions of the Shimoga, Chikmagalur, Uttara Kannada, Kodagu and Hassan districts....
region, the plains (Bayaluseemae) and semi-malnad with lower elevation and rolling hills being the buffer region. The main crops of the malnad were paddy, betel
Betel
The Betel is the leaf of a vine belonging to the Piperaceae family, which includes pepper and Kava. It is valued both as a mild stimulant and for its medicinal properties...
leaves, cardamom and pepper and semi-malnad with its lower altitude produced rice
Rice
Rice is the seed of the monocot plants Oryza sativa or Oryza glaberrima . As a cereal grain, it is the most important staple food for a large part of the world's human population, especially in East Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and the West Indies...
, millets such as ragi
Finger millet
Eleusine coracana, commonly Finger millet , also known as African millet or Ragi is an annual plant widely grown as a cereal in the arid areas of Africa and Asia. E...
and corn
Maize
Maize known in many English-speaking countries as corn or mielie/mealie, is a grain domesticated by indigenous peoples in Mesoamerica in prehistoric times. The leafy stalk produces ears which contain seeds called kernels. Though technically a grain, maize kernels are used in cooking as a vegetable...
, pulses, oilseeds and was the base for cattle farming. The plains to the east are the flat lands fed by Kaveri, Tungabhadra and Vedavati
Vedavati
In Hindu mythology, Vedavati is speculated to have been the spirit of Sita Devi, the wife of Lord Rama in the epic Ramayana. She was another avatar of Devi Laxmi.-Early life:...
rivers where cultivation of sugarcane
Sugarcane
Sugarcane refers to any of six to 37 species of tall perennial grasses of the genus Saccharum . Native to the warm temperate to tropical regions of South Asia, they have stout, jointed, fibrous stalks that are rich in sugar, and measure two to six metres tall...
, paddy, orchard
Orchard
An orchard is an intentional planting of trees or shrubs that is maintained for food production. Orchards comprise fruit or nut-producing trees which are grown for commercial production. Orchards are also sometimes a feature of large gardens, where they serve an aesthetic as well as a productive...
s of coconut
Coconut
The coconut palm, Cocos nucifera, is a member of the family Arecaceae . It is the only accepted species in the genus Cocos. The term coconut can refer to the entire coconut palm, the seed, or the fruit, which is not a botanical nut. The spelling cocoanut is an old-fashioned form of the word...
, areca
Areca
Areca is a genus of about 50 species of single-stemmed palms in the family Arecaceae, found in humid tropical forests from Malaysia to the Solomon Islands. The generic name Areca is derived from a name used locally on the Malabar Coast of India....
nut (adeka totta), betel leaves, plantain
Plantain
Plantain is the common name for herbaceous plants of the genus Musa. The fruit they produce is generally used for cooking, in contrast to the soft, sweet banana...
and flowers (vara vana) were cultivated. The importance of excavation of new irrigation tanks and repairs to existing ones are reflected in epigraphs of the period which phrase it as Arasaru Kattida Kere (tank built by the king) Elites such as gavundas (landlord), feudatory rulers, officials, mahajans (Brahmins), traders (setti) and even artisans contributed to tank building. Other sources of water were wells, natural ponds and catchments of dams (Katta). Inscriptions attesting to irrigation of previously uncultivated lands seems to indicate an expanding agrarian community.
Soil types that existed in various parts of the kingdom are mentioned, the earliest reference being a record of black soil (Karimaniya) in the Sinda-8000 territory and to red soil (Kebbayya mannu) Cultivated land was of three types; wet land, dry land and to a lesser extent garden land with paddy being the dominant crop of the region. Wet lands were called kalani, galde, nir mannu or nir panya and was specifically used to denote paddy land requiring standing water. A type of grain was harvested from a tall stout grass called Sejje. Lands adjoining irrigation tanks were called maduvinamannu and was used for coconut and areca nut cultivation if the land was not extensive enough for paddy. Terrace type paddy cultivated land in the highlands was called makki. Millet, wheat (syamaka), barley and pulses were also cultivated to a smaller extent.
The fact that pastoral economies were spread throughout Gangavadi region comes from references to cowherds in many inscriptions. The terms gosahasra (a thousand cows), gasara (owner of cows), gosasi (donor of cows), goyiti (cowherdess), gosasa (protector of cows) attest to this. Donation of a thousand cows are mentioned though the actual number may have been fewer indicating that ownership of cows may have been as important as cultivable land and that there may have existed a social hierarchy based on this. References to shepherds are uncommon though one inscription calls them Kurimbadere and the hamlets where they lived Kuripatti. Inscriptions mention cattle raids attesting to the importance of the pastoral economy, destructive raids, assaults on women (pendir-udeyulcal), abduction of women by bedas (hunter tribes), a result of the existing militarism of the age. Evidence shows that the gavundas, the people closely involved with land, its cultivation and cattle were chiefly involved in both defence against and responsible for such raids.
Lands that were exempt from taxes were called manya and sometimes consisted of several villages. They were granted by local chieftains without any reference to the overlord, indicating a de-centralised economy. These lands, often given to heroes who perished in the line of duty was called bilavritti or kalnad. Sarva parihara (or sarva badha parihara) lands were those that were free from all or most taxes. Talavritti land grants were exempt from tax overheads, made without consent of the king for the maintenance of temples at the time of consecration. Abhyantra siddi was an internal income or revenue payable to the village authorities even lower than the local chieftain. It may have also meant settlement of disputes over land by local authorities. Some types of taxes on income were kara or anthakara (internal taxes), utkota were presents due to the king and hiranya were cash payments and sulika was tolls and duties levied on imported items. Taxes were collected from those who held the right to cultivate land, whether the land was actually cultivated or not.
Siddhaya was a local tax levied on agriculture and pottondi was levied on merchandise by the local feudal ruler. At times, based on context, pottondi meant 1/10 (a fraction), aydalavi meant 1/5, elalavi meant 1/7. Mannadare literally meant land tax and was levied together with shepherds tax (Kurimbadere) payable to the chief of shepherds. Karudere and addadere taxes were collectable by corporate bodies from settlements outside their own area. Bhaga was used to denote portion or share of the produce from land or the land area itself. Minor taxes such as Kirudere due to the landlords, samathadere raised by the army officers (samantha) are mentioned. In addition to taxes for maintenance of the local officer's retinue, villages were obligated to feed armies on the march to and from battle. Waste land and forest land which were more frequently granted in the eastern regions of the kingdom included brahmadeya (grants to Brahmins) and agricultural grants. Bittuvatta or niravari taxes comprised usually of a percentage of the produce and was collected for constructing irrigation tanks.