Eight-eight fleet
Encyclopedia
The was a Japanese
naval strategy
formulated for the development of the Imperial Japanese Navy
in the first quarter of the 20th century, which laid down that the Japanese navy should include eight first-class battleship
s and eight armoured cruisers or battlecruiser
s.
period with the 1907 Imperial Defense Policy, which was a settlement reached by the competing Army
and Navy
factions of the Japanese government.
The Naval faction, inspired by the Mahanian doctrine of Satō Tetsutarō
, argued that Japanese security could only be guaranteed by a strong navy. Satō argued that to ensure security, Japan should be capable of defeating the power which represented the greatest potential threat. In the 1907 Imperial National Defense Policy, Japan’s military focus shifted away from the defeated Imperial Russia and towards the United States
as the primary threat to Japan's future security. In Japanese minds, the United States had proven to be an aggressive expansionist power in Asia, with its annexation of the Kingdom of Hawaii
and colonization of the newly formed First Philippine Republic
. The Open Door Policy
towards China
was in conflict with Japanese aspirations on the Asian mainland, and its immigration policies were perceived as an indication of American racial enmity towards the Japanese.
Based on a theoretical United States Navy
strength of 25 battleships and cruisers, Japanese naval theoreticians postulated that Japan would need a fleet of at least eight first-line battleships and eight cruisers for parity in the Pacific Ocean. When Naval Minister
Admiral Yamamoto Gonnohyoe
presented the budget request for this fleet to the Diet of Japan
, the amount was more than twice that of the entire Japanese national budget at the time.
The Eight-Eight Fleet policy was controversial because of the enormous cost of battleships, and only once was authorization given by the Diet of Japan
for a building program which would have reached the 'Eight-Eight Fleet' ideal. To complicate matters further, while the 'Eight-Eight Fleet' plan lasted over a decade, the ships required for it changed; by 1920 the ships which had been ordered in 1910 to start to fulfill the plan were becoming obsolete.
Various alternative plans were discussed, including a reduction in the plan to 'Eight-four Fleet' program, of later to an 'Eight-Six Fleet' program.
proposed a building program of eight battleships and eight armored cruisers (by that time, they would inevitably become battlecruiser
s). The Navy Ministry
cut back this request for political reasons, to seven battleships and three armored cruisers. The Cabinet eventually recommended one battleship and four battlecruisers, and the Diet authorized these ships in 1911. The battlecruisers became the Kongō class
and the battleship was Fusō
- all technologically advanced ships of admirable design.
The 1913 program saw a further three battleships authorized, making a total of 'four-four'. These ships, Yamashiro
, Ise
and Hyūga
, were sister ship
s or cousins of Fusō.
In 1915, the Navy proposed another four battleships, to reach an 'Eight-Four Fleet'. This was rejected by the Diet. However, in 1916 the Diet agreed to an additional battleship and two battlecruisers. In 1917, in response to the U.S. Navy's plan to build an additional ten battleships and six battlecruisers, the Diet authorized a further three battleships; and in 1918 the Cabinet authorized another two battlecruisers. In total, the authorization existed for an 'Eight-Eight Fleet'.
The new ships started were the two Nagato
battleships, the two Kaga battleships, and a total of four Amagi
battlecruisers - all modern, capable ships carrying 16-inch guns. Only the two Nagato class ships were eventually completed in their intended role.
A further impetus to achieve the Eight-Eight Fleet ideal came from an additional expansion of the U.S. Navy under American President Woodrow Wilson
's 1919 plan to build another set of 16 capital ship
s (on top of the 16 already authorized in 1916). In 1920, under Prime Minister
Hara Takashi
, a reluctant Diet was persuaded to accept a plan to bring the 'Four-Four' set of modern ships up to 'Eight-Eight' strength by 1927. This would have involved augmenting the Amagi
battlecruisers with an additional four fast battleships of the new Kii class
, which were marginally slower and more powerful. A further four battleships No. 13-16
would have been built, with 18-inch guns. If completed, this would have been an 'Eight-Eight Fleet' in full; if one included the oldest ships of the navy, the Fuso and Kongō classes, then the even higher goal of an 'Eight-Eight-Eight Fleet' with not two but three eight-ship battle squadrons could be realized.
of 1922. Under the terms of the treaty all the ships still being built - which meant all ships started after Nagato, the first ship of the 1916 building program - had to be broken up or converted into aircraft carrier
s. A special exemption was made for the battleship Mutsu
, which was nearing completion and which had a special place in many Japanese hearts, with many of the funds for her construction raised by public subscription.
The treaty established a maximum tonnage
for the Japanese navy as 60% of the U.S. Navy and the British Royal Navy
. For this reason, it was vociferously opposed by many Imperial Japanese Navy officers, including Admiral Satō Tetsutarō. This group formed the influential Fleet Faction
which later achieved Japan's withdrawal from the treaty. Ironically, the treaty probably restricted British and especially American ship building much more than Japanese.
Although Japanese Navy procurement still proceeded along the lines of initial 'Eight-Eight Fleet' plans for several years, changes in naval strategy and the development of naval aviation
made the term an anachronism by the 1930s.
Empire of Japan
The Empire of Japan is the name of the state of Japan that existed from the Meiji Restoration on 3 January 1868 to the enactment of the post-World War II Constitution of...
naval strategy
Naval strategy
Naval strategy is the planning and conduct of war at sea, the naval equivalent of military strategy on land.Naval strategy, and the related concept of maritime strategy, concerns the overall strategy for achieving victory at sea, including the planning and conduct of campaigns, the movement and...
formulated for the development of the Imperial Japanese Navy
Imperial Japanese Navy
The Imperial Japanese Navy was the navy of the Empire of Japan from 1869 until 1947, when it was dissolved following Japan's constitutional renunciation of the use of force as a means of settling international disputes...
in the first quarter of the 20th century, which laid down that the Japanese navy should include eight first-class battleship
Battleship
A battleship is a large armored warship with a main battery consisting of heavy caliber guns. Battleships were larger, better armed and armored than cruisers and destroyers. As the largest armed ships in a fleet, battleships were used to attain command of the sea and represented the apex of a...
s and eight armoured cruisers or battlecruiser
Battlecruiser
Battlecruisers were large capital ships built in the first half of the 20th century. They were developed in the first decade of the century as the successor to the armoured cruiser, but their evolution was more closely linked to that of the dreadnought battleship...
s.
History and development
The 'Eight-Eight Fleet' concept originated in post-Russo-Japanese WarRusso-Japanese War
The Russo-Japanese War was "the first great war of the 20th century." It grew out of rival imperial ambitions of the Russian Empire and Japanese Empire over Manchuria and Korea...
period with the 1907 Imperial Defense Policy, which was a settlement reached by the competing Army
Imperial Japanese Army
-Foundation:During the Meiji Restoration, the military forces loyal to the Emperor were samurai drawn primarily from the loyalist feudal domains of Satsuma and Chōshū...
and Navy
Imperial Japanese Navy
The Imperial Japanese Navy was the navy of the Empire of Japan from 1869 until 1947, when it was dissolved following Japan's constitutional renunciation of the use of force as a means of settling international disputes...
factions of the Japanese government.
The Naval faction, inspired by the Mahanian doctrine of Satō Tetsutarō
Sato Tetsutaro
-Notes:...
, argued that Japanese security could only be guaranteed by a strong navy. Satō argued that to ensure security, Japan should be capable of defeating the power which represented the greatest potential threat. In the 1907 Imperial National Defense Policy, Japan’s military focus shifted away from the defeated Imperial Russia and towards the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
as the primary threat to Japan's future security. In Japanese minds, the United States had proven to be an aggressive expansionist power in Asia, with its annexation of the Kingdom of Hawaii
Kingdom of Hawaii
The Kingdom of Hawaii was established during the years 1795 to 1810 with the subjugation of the smaller independent chiefdoms of Oahu, Maui, Molokai, Lānai, Kauai and Niihau by the chiefdom of Hawaii into one unified government...
and colonization of the newly formed First Philippine Republic
First Philippine Republic
The Philippine Republic , more commonly known as the First Philippine Republic or the Malolos Republic was a short-lived insurgent revolutionary government in the Philippines...
. The Open Door Policy
Open Door Policy
The Open Door Policy is a concept in foreign affairs, which usually refers to the policy in 1899 allowing multiple Imperial powers access to China, with none of them in control of that country. As a theory, the Open Door Policy originates with British commercial practice, as was reflected in...
towards China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
was in conflict with Japanese aspirations on the Asian mainland, and its immigration policies were perceived as an indication of American racial enmity towards the Japanese.
Based on a theoretical United States Navy
United States Navy
The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U.S. Navy is the largest in the world; its battle fleet tonnage is greater than that of the next 13 largest navies combined. The U.S...
strength of 25 battleships and cruisers, Japanese naval theoreticians postulated that Japan would need a fleet of at least eight first-line battleships and eight cruisers for parity in the Pacific Ocean. When Naval Minister
Ministry of the Navy of Japan
The was a cabinet-level ministry in the Empire of Japan charged with the administrative affairs of the Imperial Japanese Navy . It existed from 1872 to 1945.-History:...
Admiral Yamamoto Gonnohyoe
Yamamoto Gonnohyoe
, also called Gonnohyōe, was an admiral in the Imperial Japanese Navy and the 16th and 22nd Prime Minister of Japan.-Early life:...
presented the budget request for this fleet to the Diet of Japan
Diet of Japan
The is Japan's bicameral legislature. It is composed of a lower house, called the House of Representatives, and an upper house, called the House of Councillors. Both houses of the Diet are directly elected under a parallel voting system. In addition to passing laws, the Diet is formally...
, the amount was more than twice that of the entire Japanese national budget at the time.
The Eight-Eight Fleet policy was controversial because of the enormous cost of battleships, and only once was authorization given by the Diet of Japan
Diet of Japan
The is Japan's bicameral legislature. It is composed of a lower house, called the House of Representatives, and an upper house, called the House of Councillors. Both houses of the Diet are directly elected under a parallel voting system. In addition to passing laws, the Diet is formally...
for a building program which would have reached the 'Eight-Eight Fleet' ideal. To complicate matters further, while the 'Eight-Eight Fleet' plan lasted over a decade, the ships required for it changed; by 1920 the ships which had been ordered in 1910 to start to fulfill the plan were becoming obsolete.
Various alternative plans were discussed, including a reduction in the plan to 'Eight-four Fleet' program, of later to an 'Eight-Six Fleet' program.
First 'Eight-Eight'
The first serious attempt to build an 'Eight-Eight Fleet' came in 1910, when the Naval General StaffImperial Japanese Navy General Staff
The was the highest organ within the Imperial Japanese Navy. In charge of planning and operations, it was headed by an Admiral headquartered in Tokyo.-History:...
proposed a building program of eight battleships and eight armored cruisers (by that time, they would inevitably become battlecruiser
Battlecruiser
Battlecruisers were large capital ships built in the first half of the 20th century. They were developed in the first decade of the century as the successor to the armoured cruiser, but their evolution was more closely linked to that of the dreadnought battleship...
s). The Navy Ministry
Ministry of the Navy of Japan
The was a cabinet-level ministry in the Empire of Japan charged with the administrative affairs of the Imperial Japanese Navy . It existed from 1872 to 1945.-History:...
cut back this request for political reasons, to seven battleships and three armored cruisers. The Cabinet eventually recommended one battleship and four battlecruisers, and the Diet authorized these ships in 1911. The battlecruisers became the Kongō class
Kongo class battlecruiser
The were a class of ships of the Imperial Japanese Navy constructed immediately before World War I. Designed by British naval architect George Thurston, the lead ship of the class was the last Japanese capital ship constructed outside of Japan. Displacing upon completion, the vessels of this...
and the battleship was Fusō
Japanese battleship Fuso
The Japanese battleship Fusō , was a part of the Imperial Japanese Navy, the lead ship of the Fusō-class. She was laid down by the Kure Kaigun Koshō on 11 March 1912, launched on 28 March 1914 and completed on 18 November 1915...
- all technologically advanced ships of admirable design.
The 1913 program saw a further three battleships authorized, making a total of 'four-four'. These ships, Yamashiro
Japanese battleship Yamashiro
Yamashiro was the Imperial Japanese Navy's second Fusō-class battleship, and was laid down at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal on November 20, 1913, launched on November 3, 1915, and commissioned on March 31, 1917. She was the first Japanese vessel equipped with aircraft catapults...
, Ise
Japanese battleship Ise
, was the lead ship of the two-vessel Ise-class battleship of the Imperial Japanese Navy, which saw combat service during the Pacific War. Ise was named after Ise Province, one of the traditional provinces of Japan, now part of Mie Prefecture....
and Hyūga
Japanese battleship Hyuga
Hyūga , named for Hyūga Province in Kyūshū, was an of the Imperial Japanese Navy laid down by Mitsubishi on 6 May 1915, launched on 27 January 1917 and completed on 30 April 1918. She was initially designed as the fourth ship of the , but was heavily redesigned to fix shortcomings...
, were sister ship
Sister ship
A sister ship is a ship of the same class as, or of virtually identical design to, another ship. Such vessels share a near-identical hull and superstructure layout, similar displacement, and roughly comparable features and equipment...
s or cousins of Fusō.
In 1915, the Navy proposed another four battleships, to reach an 'Eight-Four Fleet'. This was rejected by the Diet. However, in 1916 the Diet agreed to an additional battleship and two battlecruisers. In 1917, in response to the U.S. Navy's plan to build an additional ten battleships and six battlecruisers, the Diet authorized a further three battleships; and in 1918 the Cabinet authorized another two battlecruisers. In total, the authorization existed for an 'Eight-Eight Fleet'.
The new ships started were the two Nagato
Nagato class battleship
The were two battleships of the Imperial Japanese Navy. The name Nagato comes from the Nagato province. They were the first battleships to be built entirely in Japan...
battleships, the two Kaga battleships, and a total of four Amagi
Amagi class battlecruiser
The was a series of four battlecruisers planned for the Imperial Japanese Navy as part of the so-called Eight-eight fleet. The ships were to be named Amagi, , Atago, and Takao; the first three were named for mountains , while the fourth was named for the town of Takao, Formosa...
battlecruisers - all modern, capable ships carrying 16-inch guns. Only the two Nagato class ships were eventually completed in their intended role.
Second 'Eight-Eight Fleet'
So great was the difference in capability between this generation of ships and those of five years previously that the 'Eight-Eight Fleet' plan was restarted: Nagato was now regarded as Ship No.1 in the new project, and planners now began to write off the older battleships and battlecruisers. On this revised basis the Navy was back down to a 'Four-Four Fleet'.A further impetus to achieve the Eight-Eight Fleet ideal came from an additional expansion of the U.S. Navy under American President Woodrow Wilson
Woodrow Wilson
Thomas Woodrow Wilson was the 28th President of the United States, from 1913 to 1921. A leader of the Progressive Movement, he served as President of Princeton University from 1902 to 1910, and then as the Governor of New Jersey from 1911 to 1913...
's 1919 plan to build another set of 16 capital ship
Capital ship
The capital ships of a navy are its most important warships; they generally possess the heaviest firepower and armor and are traditionally much larger than other naval vessels...
s (on top of the 16 already authorized in 1916). In 1920, under Prime Minister
Prime Minister of Japan
The is the head of government of Japan. He is appointed by the Emperor of Japan after being designated by the Diet from among its members, and must enjoy the confidence of the House of Representatives to remain in office...
Hara Takashi
Hara Takashi
was a Japanese politician and the 19th Prime Minister of Japan from 29 September 1918 to 4 November 1921. He was also called Hara Kei informally. He was the first commoner appointed to the office of prime minister of Japan...
, a reluctant Diet was persuaded to accept a plan to bring the 'Four-Four' set of modern ships up to 'Eight-Eight' strength by 1927. This would have involved augmenting the Amagi
Amagi class battlecruiser
The was a series of four battlecruisers planned for the Imperial Japanese Navy as part of the so-called Eight-eight fleet. The ships were to be named Amagi, , Atago, and Takao; the first three were named for mountains , while the fourth was named for the town of Takao, Formosa...
battlecruisers with an additional four fast battleships of the new Kii class
Kii class battleship
The Kii class was a planned battleship design of the Imperial Japanese Navy. Designed by Yuzuru Hiraga, the class was to have been armed with ten guns and would bring Japan closer to its goal of an "Eight-eight fleet"...
, which were marginally slower and more powerful. A further four battleships No. 13-16
Number 13 class battleship
The Number 13-class was a planned fast battleship design of the Imperial Japanese Navy. The class consisted of four ships and would have been built in the late 1920s. The ships never received any names, being known only as Number 13, Number 14, Number 15, and Number 16...
would have been built, with 18-inch guns. If completed, this would have been an 'Eight-Eight Fleet' in full; if one included the oldest ships of the navy, the Fuso and Kongō classes, then the even higher goal of an 'Eight-Eight-Eight Fleet' with not two but three eight-ship battle squadrons could be realized.
Washington Naval Treaty
Japan was spared the possibly ruinous expense of following through on this construction plan by the Washington Naval TreatyWashington Naval Treaty
The Washington Naval Treaty, also known as the Five-Power Treaty, was an attempt to cap and limit, and "prevent 'further' costly escalation" of the naval arms race that had begun after World War I between various International powers, each of which had significant naval fleets. The treaty was...
of 1922. Under the terms of the treaty all the ships still being built - which meant all ships started after Nagato, the first ship of the 1916 building program - had to be broken up or converted into aircraft carrier
Aircraft carrier
An aircraft carrier is a warship designed with a primary mission of deploying and recovering aircraft, acting as a seagoing airbase. Aircraft carriers thus allow a naval force to project air power worldwide without having to depend on local bases for staging aircraft operations...
s. A special exemption was made for the battleship Mutsu
Japanese battleship Mutsu
thumb|right|300px|Mutsu shortly after commissioning in c. 1922Mutsu , named after Mutsu Province, as per Japanese ship naming conventions, was the Imperial Japanese Navy's second Nagato class battleship...
, which was nearing completion and which had a special place in many Japanese hearts, with many of the funds for her construction raised by public subscription.
The treaty established a maximum tonnage
Displacement (fluid)
In fluid mechanics, displacement occurs when an object is immersed in a fluid, pushing it out of the way and taking its place. The volume of the fluid displaced can then be measured, as in the illustration, and from this the volume of the immersed object can be deduced .An object that sinks...
for the Japanese navy as 60% of the U.S. Navy and the British Royal Navy
Royal Navy
The Royal Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Founded in the 16th century, it is the oldest service branch and is known as the Senior Service...
. For this reason, it was vociferously opposed by many Imperial Japanese Navy officers, including Admiral Satō Tetsutarō. This group formed the influential Fleet Faction
Fleet Faction
The was an unofficial and informal political faction within the Imperial Japanese Navy in the 1920s-1930s of officers opposed to the conditions imposed by the Washington Naval Treaty.-Background:...
which later achieved Japan's withdrawal from the treaty. Ironically, the treaty probably restricted British and especially American ship building much more than Japanese.
Although Japanese Navy procurement still proceeded along the lines of initial 'Eight-Eight Fleet' plans for several years, changes in naval strategy and the development of naval aviation
Naval aviation
Naval aviation is the application of manned military air power by navies, including ships that embark fixed-wing aircraft or helicopters. In contrast, maritime aviation is the operation of aircraft in a maritime role under the command of non-naval forces such as the former RAF Coastal Command or a...
made the term an anachronism by the 1930s.