Emperor Chengzong of Yuan China
Encyclopedia
Temür Öljeytü Khan born Temür , or Emperor Chengzong of Yuan (October 15, 1265-February 10, 1307), also spelled Timur, was the second leader of the Yuan Dynasty
between May 10, 1294 and February 10, 1307, and is considered as the sixth Great Khan
of the Mongols
in Mongolia. He, whose reign established the patterns of power for the next few decades, was an able ruler of the Yuan.
He was a son of the Crown Prince
Zhenjin
(真金) and the grandson of Kublai Khan
. During his rule, the Tran, Pagan
and Champa
dynasties and western khanate
s of the Mongol Empire accepted his supremacy.
of the Borjigin
and Kökejin (Bairam-Egechi) of the Khunggirad on October 15, 1265. Because Kublai's first son Dorji died early, his second son and Temur's father, Zhenjin, became the crown prince
. However, he died in 1286 when Temür was 21 years old. Kublai remained close to Zhenjin's widow Kökejin who was high in his favor. Like his grandfather Kublai he too was a follower of Buddhism.
He followed his grandfather Kublai to suppress the rebellion of Nayan
(Naiyan) and other rival relatives in 1287. Then he and Kublai's official, Oz-Temur, came to guard the Liao River
area and Liaodong in the east from Nayan's ally, Qadaan, and defeated him. Kublai appointed him the princely overseer of Karakorum
and surrounding areas in July 1293. Three Chagatai princes submitted to him while he was defending Mongolia
(they fled to Chagatai Khanate
soon and returned to Yuan Dynasty again during the reign of Temür).
After Kublai Khan died in 1294, Kublai's old officials urged the court to summon a kurultai
in Shangdu
. Because Zhenjin's second son Darmabala already died in 1292, only his two sons, Gammala and Temür, were left to succeed. Temür was Kublai's provisional choice but he had never been confirmed as heir. In his early life he had been addicted to drunkenness and gluttony of which he had been reproved by his grandfather. Even though Temur was given the seal of the heir apparent when he was dispatched to Mongolia, he was not given the panoply of an heir. At the kurultai a matriarch suggested that Kublai Khan had said whoever knew the sayings (Билэг сургааль) of Genghis Khan
best was suited to rule at the kurultai on 14 April. It was agreed that the two would compete. Temur declaimed well while his eldest brother Gammala, who stammered
, could not match him. All cried out: "Temur knows them better! ...It's he that is worthy of crown and throne!". The grand councillor
Bayan
claimed that he could support only Kublai's choice, Temur, but not someone else. Temur was backed by his mother Kökejin and by merited officials of Khubilai, namely Oz Temür, Bayan, the Kankali
Bukhumu, and Ölĵei all experienced with the state bureaucracy and honored military leaders. These highly estimated persons could enforce the election of Temür. Although Gammala wanted the throne, he recognized that Temur had won in the competition.
. Many other high posts of his empire were filled with people of different origin, including Mongols, Han Chinese, Muslims and few Christian
s. Ideologically, Temür's administration showed respect for Confucianism
and Confucian scholars. Shortly after his accession, Temür issued an edict to revere Confucius. Temur appointed Harghasun, who was particularly close to the Confucian scholars, right grand chancellor in the secretariat. Nevertheless, the Mongol court did not accept every principle of Confucianism. Temur bestowed new guards and assets on his mother and renamed her ordo (great palace-tent or camp) Longfugong palace which became a center of Khunggirad power for the next few decades. Mongol and westerner statesmen were assisted by an array of Chinese administrators and Muslim
financers. The most prominent Muslim
statesman was Bayan (Баян), great-grandson of Saiyid Ajall Shams al-Din who was in charge of the Ministry of Finance. Under Mongol administrators, Oljei and Harghasun, the Yuan court adopted policies that were designed to ensure political and social stability.
Number of the Tibetans gradually increased in the administration. The Khon family of Tibet
was honored and one of them became an imperial son-in law in 1296. Temur reversed his grandfather's anti-Taoist policy and made Taoist Zhang Liusun cochair of the Academy of Scholarly Worthies. In 1304, Temur appointed the Celestial master of Dragon and Tiger Mountain
as head of the Orthodox Unity School. He banned sales and distillation of alcohol
s in Mongolia in 1297. The French historian René Grousset
applauded his activity in the book The Empire of Steppes. Temur was opposed to imposing any additional fiscal burden on the people. Exemptions from levies and taxes were granted several times for part or all of the Yuan. After his enthronement, Temur exempted Dadu
and Shangdu from taxes for a year. He also exempted the Mongol commoners from taxation for two years. In 1302 he prohibited the collection of anything beyond the established tax quotas. Orders were given that portraits be painted of the khagans and khatuns during the reign of Temur.
However, the government's financial situation deteriorated and the draining of monetary reserves greatly weakened the credibility of the paper currency system.
One problem was that corrupt officials of the Yuan started to show up during his reign, but overall, the empire was still in a good shape. Because his only son Teshou died a year earlier (January 1306), Temür died without a male heir in capital Dadu
on 10 February 1307.
to demand submissions. Champa accepted the term but Kamakura shogunate
declined it, and the Japanese Wokou
attacked Ningbo
in Zheijiang province in his late reign. The rulers of Đại Việt, Burma and Sukhotai
visited Khanbalik to greet him as their overlord in 1295, 1297 and 1300. After the compliment from the prince of Burma, he aborted the Burmese campaign and said all his ministers: "They are our friendly subjects. Do not attack their people". Temür also released envoys of Đại Việt to show his goodwill and the Tran court began to send tributary missions. But Temur's government had to quell rebellions in the southwestern mountainous area, led by tribal chieftains like Song Longji and female leader Shejie in 1296. It took long months for the generals Liu Shen and Liu Guojie to suppress these rebellions.
By the request of the Burmese prince, Tribhuvanaditya, Temür dispatched a detachment of Yuan army to Burma in 1297. They successfully repelled the Shans from Myanmar
. Temur also received envoys from Siam and Cambodia
. He dispatched Zhou Daguan
to Khmer
Cambodia in 1296, and Zhou wrote an account about his journey. In 1299 Athinkaya murdered his brother Tribhuvanaditya, who submitted to Temur in 1297. In 1300, a punitive expedition
was launched against Burma
for dethroning Temur's protectorate, Tribhuvanaditya. The Shan warlord
s of Babai-Xifu, who were quarreling over the royal succession of Pagan, also raided the Yuan realms. Temur sent his Yunnan
-based force in turn to halt the advance of Babaixifu (Lanna
Kingdom of Chiangmai) in 1301-03. Although, those campaigns were fruitless, Athinkaya and the Shan lords offered their submission.
The costly expedition spurred rebellions of a Yunnan official, Song Longji, and the Gold-Tooths (ancestors of the Dai people
) in 1301-03. The revolts were eventually suppressed. After Temur Khan ordered to withdraw his army from Burma, Central and southern Burma soon came under the Tai rulers who paid nominal tribute to the Yuan Dynasty.
Ghazan Khan of the Ilkhanate
converted to Islam
after his enthronement in 1295. He actively supported the expansion of Islam in his empire and renounced all relationship with the "paganish" Yuan Dynasty. In 1296 Temur Khan dispatched Baiju, the military commander, to Mongol Persia, the western region of the Mongol Empire. Ghazan was very impressed with Baiju's abilities. But three years later, he changed his policy and sent his envoys with precious gifts such as cloths, jewels and gold to greet Temür who was the most respected person of the House of Tolui
at time. In response, Temür said "Descendants of Chingis Khan shall be friendly to each other forever" and sent Ghazan a seal reading "王府定國理民之寶" in Chinese script, meaning "Seal certifying the authority of his Royal Highness to establish a country and govern its people as a prince below Khagan". The Ilkhanid envoys presented tribute
to Khagan Temur and inspected properties granted to Hulegu in North China. They stayed at the ordo of Temur Khagan in Dadu
for 4 years. Ghazan called upon other Mongol Khans to unite their will under the Khagan Temur. Kaidu's enemy Bayan Khan of the White Horde strongly supported his appeal. However, the envoys returned to Persia after the death of Ghazan.
Temur also treated Ochicher, a descendant of Borokhula (one of Genghis Khan's "4 steeds"), as an elder statesman and dispatched him to Karakorum
to assist his brother Gammala in pacifying the threat from the House of Ogedei
and the Chagatai Khanate
. While Ochicher and Gammala never achieved the final surrender of Kaidu
, head of the Ogedeid and Chagatayid families, they neutralized him by skillfully exploiting their divisions and reviving military farm
s up to the Altai Range. In 1293 Tutugh occupied the Baarin tumen, who were allies of Kaidu, on the Ob River
. From 1298 on the Chagatayid Khan Duwa
increased his raids on the Yuan. He launched a surprise attack against the Yuan garrison under Temur's uncle Kokechu in Mongolia
and captured Temur's son-in-law, Korguz
of the Ongud
when he and his commanders were drunk. However, Duwa was defeated by the Yuan army under Ananda in Gansu
and his son-in law and several relations were captured. Although, Duwa and the Yuan generals agreed to exchange their prisoners, Duwa and Qaidu executed Korguz in revenge and cheated the Yuan officials. To reorganize the Yuan defence system in Mongolia, Temur appointed Darmabala's son Khayisan to replace Kokechu. The Yuan army defeated Qaidu south of the Altai Mountains. However, in 1300, Kaidu defeated Khayishan's force. Then Kaidu and Duwa mobilized a large army to attack Karakorum the next year. The Yuan army suffered heavy losses while both sides could not make any decisive victory in September. Duwa was wounded in the battle and Qaidu died soon thereafter. Duwa assisted Kaidu's son Chapar to succeed his father as head of the House of Ogedei and insisted him to recognize Temur's supremacy as Khagan of all Mongols. Because Duwa was more interested in foreign expansion, especially to India, and tired of the civil strife of the Mongols.
In 1304, Duwa, Kaidu's son Chapar, Tokhta of Golden Horde
and Ilkhan Oljeitu negotiated peace with Temür Khan, in order to maintain trade and diplomatic relations, and agreed him to be their nominal overlord. According to the ancient custom which was inherited from the time of Hulegu, Temür thus deigned Oljeitu as the new khan of the Ilkhanate
, and sent him a seal reading "真命皇帝和順萬夷之寶" in Chinese script, meaning "Seal of Mandate of Heaven
Emperor [i.e. Emperor of China
] who made peace with all foreigners/barbarians", which was later used by Oljeitu in his letter to the French king Philip IV of France
in 1305. Soon after that the fighting between Duwa and Chapar soon broke out over the question of territory. Temür backed Duwa and sent a large army under Khayisan in the fall of 1306, and Chapar finally surrendered. Tokhta Khan of the Golden Horde
also sent his overlord Temur two tumen
s to buttress the Yuan frontier.
Yuan Dynasty
The Yuan Dynasty , or Great Yuan Empire was a ruling dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai Khan, who ruled most of present-day China, all of modern Mongolia and its surrounding areas, lasting officially from 1271 to 1368. It is considered both as a division of the Mongol Empire and as an...
between May 10, 1294 and February 10, 1307, and is considered as the sixth Great Khan
Khagan
Khagan or qagan , alternatively spelled kagan, khaghan, qaghan, or chagan, is a title of imperial rank in the Mongolian and Turkic languages equal to the status of emperor and someone who rules a khaganate...
of the Mongols
Mongol Empire
The Mongol Empire , initially named as Greater Mongol State was a great empire during the 13th and 14th centuries...
in Mongolia. He, whose reign established the patterns of power for the next few decades, was an able ruler of the Yuan.
He was a son of the Crown Prince
Crown Prince
A crown prince or crown princess is the heir or heiress apparent to the throne in a royal or imperial monarchy. The wife of a crown prince is also titled crown princess....
Zhenjin
Zhenjin
Zhenjin was the second son of Kublai Khan, founder of the Yuan Dynasty. He was designated as the Crown Prince by Kublai Khan in 1273, and became the head of Zhongshusheng .The North Chinese Buddhist monk Haiyun gave him the name, Zhenjin , when he was born in 1243...
(真金) and the grandson of Kublai Khan
Kublai Khan
Kublai Khan , born Kublai and also known by the temple name Shizu , was the fifth Great Khan of the Mongol Empire from 1260 to 1294 and the founder of the Yuan Dynasty in China...
. During his rule, the Tran, Pagan
Pagan Kingdom
The Pagan Kingdom or Pagan Dynasty was the first kingdom to unify the regions that would later constitute the modern-day Burma...
and Champa
Champa
The kingdom of Champa was an Indianized kingdom that controlled what is now southern and central Vietnam from approximately the 7th century through to 1832.The Cham people are remnants...
dynasties and western khanate
Khanate
Khanate, or Chanat, is a Turco-Mongol-originated word used to describe a political entity ruled by a Khan. In modern Turkish, the word used is kağanlık, and in modern Azeri of the republic of Azerbaijan, xanlıq. In Mongolian the word khanlig is used, as in "Khereidiin Khanlig" meaning the Khanate...
s of the Mongol Empire accepted his supremacy.
Early life
Temür was born the third son of ZhenjinZhenjin
Zhenjin was the second son of Kublai Khan, founder of the Yuan Dynasty. He was designated as the Crown Prince by Kublai Khan in 1273, and became the head of Zhongshusheng .The North Chinese Buddhist monk Haiyun gave him the name, Zhenjin , when he was born in 1243...
of the Borjigin
Borjigin
Borjigin , also known as the Altan urug , were the imperial clan of Genghis Khan and his successors....
and Kökejin (Bairam-Egechi) of the Khunggirad on October 15, 1265. Because Kublai's first son Dorji died early, his second son and Temur's father, Zhenjin, became the crown prince
Crown Prince
A crown prince or crown princess is the heir or heiress apparent to the throne in a royal or imperial monarchy. The wife of a crown prince is also titled crown princess....
. However, he died in 1286 when Temür was 21 years old. Kublai remained close to Zhenjin's widow Kökejin who was high in his favor. Like his grandfather Kublai he too was a follower of Buddhism.
He followed his grandfather Kublai to suppress the rebellion of Nayan
Nayan
'Nayan' or 'nayana' is the Hindi colloquial, but stylized word, derived from the Sanskrit word "nayanam" which means 'eyes' while the correct pronunciation of this word is NAIN.It is sometimes used to refer to the South Indian actress better known as Nayantara....
(Naiyan) and other rival relatives in 1287. Then he and Kublai's official, Oz-Temur, came to guard the Liao River
Liao River
The Liao River is the principal river in northeast China . The province of Liaoning and the Liaodong Peninsula derive their names from the river....
area and Liaodong in the east from Nayan's ally, Qadaan, and defeated him. Kublai appointed him the princely overseer of Karakorum
Karakorum
Karakorum was the capital of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century, and of the Northern Yuan in the 14-15th century. Its ruins lie in the northwestern corner of the Övörkhangai Province of Mongolia, near today's town of Kharkhorin, and adjacent to the Erdene Zuu monastery...
and surrounding areas in July 1293. Three Chagatai princes submitted to him while he was defending Mongolia
Mongolia
Mongolia is a landlocked country in East and Central Asia. It is bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south, east and west. Although Mongolia does not share a border with Kazakhstan, its western-most point is only from Kazakhstan's eastern tip. Ulan Bator, the capital and largest...
(they fled to Chagatai Khanate
Chagatai Khanate
The Chagatai Khanate was a Turko-Mongol khanate that comprised the lands ruled by Chagatai Khan , second son of the Great Khan Genghis Khan, and his descendents and successors...
soon and returned to Yuan Dynasty again during the reign of Temür).
After Kublai Khan died in 1294, Kublai's old officials urged the court to summon a kurultai
Kurultai
Kurultai is a political and military council of ancient Mongol and Turkic chiefs and khans. The root of the word "Khural" means political "meeting" or "assembly" in the Mongolian language, it is also a verb for "to be established"...
in Shangdu
Xanadu
-Description of Xanadu by Toghon Temur :The lament of Toghon Temur Khan , concerning the loss of Daidu and Heibun Shanduu in 1368, is recorded in many Mongolian historical chronicles...
. Because Zhenjin's second son Darmabala already died in 1292, only his two sons, Gammala and Temür, were left to succeed. Temür was Kublai's provisional choice but he had never been confirmed as heir. In his early life he had been addicted to drunkenness and gluttony of which he had been reproved by his grandfather. Even though Temur was given the seal of the heir apparent when he was dispatched to Mongolia, he was not given the panoply of an heir. At the kurultai a matriarch suggested that Kublai Khan had said whoever knew the sayings (Билэг сургааль) of Genghis Khan
Genghis Khan
Genghis Khan , born Temujin and occasionally known by his temple name Taizu , was the founder and Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history after his death....
best was suited to rule at the kurultai on 14 April. It was agreed that the two would compete. Temur declaimed well while his eldest brother Gammala, who stammered
Stuttering
Stuttering , also known as stammering , is a speech disorder in which the flow of speech is disrupted by involuntary repetitions and prolongations of sounds, syllables, words or phrases, and involuntary silent pauses or blocks in which the stutterer is unable to produce sounds...
, could not match him. All cried out: "Temur knows them better! ...It's he that is worthy of crown and throne!". The grand councillor
Councillor
A councillor or councilor is a member of a local government council, such as a city council.Often in the United States, the title is councilman or councilwoman.-United Kingdom:...
Bayan
Bayan of the Baarin
Bayan of the Baarin , also known as "Bayan chingsang" or, to Marco Polo, as "Bayan Hundred Eyes" , was a Mongol general...
claimed that he could support only Kublai's choice, Temur, but not someone else. Temur was backed by his mother Kökejin and by merited officials of Khubilai, namely Oz Temür, Bayan, the Kankali
Kankali
The Kankali are a Muslim community found in the state of Uttar Pradesh in India. They are also known as Kankal and Mangta.- Origin :The word kankali is said to be derived from the Hidi word kangal, meaning a pauper. This is said to refer to the fact that the Kankali were once a community of...
Bukhumu, and Ölĵei all experienced with the state bureaucracy and honored military leaders. These highly estimated persons could enforce the election of Temür. Although Gammala wanted the throne, he recognized that Temur had won in the competition.
Reign
Temür Khan was a competent emperor of the Yuan Dynasty. He kept the empire the way Kublai Khan left it though he did not make any great achievements. He continued many of Kublai Khan's economic reforms and tried to recover the economy from the expensive campaigns of Kublai Khan's reign. He allowed the empire to heal from the wounds of particularly the Vietnam CampaignMongol invasions of Vietnam
Mongol invasions of Vietnam or Mongol-Vietnamese War refer to the three times that the Mongol Empire and its chief khanate the Yuan Dynasty invaded Đại Việt during the Trần Dynasty and the Kingdom of Champa: in 1257–1258, 1284–1285, and 1287–1288. The Mongols were defeated by Đại...
. Many other high posts of his empire were filled with people of different origin, including Mongols, Han Chinese, Muslims and few Christian
Christian
A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as recorded in the Canonical gospels and the letters of the New Testament...
s. Ideologically, Temür's administration showed respect for Confucianism
Confucianism
Confucianism is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius . Confucianism originated as an "ethical-sociopolitical teaching" during the Spring and Autumn Period, but later developed metaphysical and cosmological elements in the Han...
and Confucian scholars. Shortly after his accession, Temür issued an edict to revere Confucius. Temur appointed Harghasun, who was particularly close to the Confucian scholars, right grand chancellor in the secretariat. Nevertheless, the Mongol court did not accept every principle of Confucianism. Temur bestowed new guards and assets on his mother and renamed her ordo (great palace-tent or camp) Longfugong palace which became a center of Khunggirad power for the next few decades. Mongol and westerner statesmen were assisted by an array of Chinese administrators and Muslim
Muslim
A Muslim, also spelled Moslem, is an adherent of Islam, a monotheistic, Abrahamic religion based on the Quran, which Muslims consider the verbatim word of God as revealed to prophet Muhammad. "Muslim" is the Arabic term for "submitter" .Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable...
financers. The most prominent Muslim
Muslim
A Muslim, also spelled Moslem, is an adherent of Islam, a monotheistic, Abrahamic religion based on the Quran, which Muslims consider the verbatim word of God as revealed to prophet Muhammad. "Muslim" is the Arabic term for "submitter" .Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable...
statesman was Bayan (Баян), great-grandson of Saiyid Ajall Shams al-Din who was in charge of the Ministry of Finance. Under Mongol administrators, Oljei and Harghasun, the Yuan court adopted policies that were designed to ensure political and social stability.
Number of the Tibetans gradually increased in the administration. The Khon family of Tibet
Tibet
Tibet is a plateau region in Asia, north-east of the Himalayas. It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people as well as some other ethnic groups such as Monpas, Qiang, and Lhobas, and is now also inhabited by considerable numbers of Han and Hui people...
was honored and one of them became an imperial son-in law in 1296. Temur reversed his grandfather's anti-Taoist policy and made Taoist Zhang Liusun cochair of the Academy of Scholarly Worthies. In 1304, Temur appointed the Celestial master of Dragon and Tiger Mountain
Tiger Mountain
Tiger Mountain is a mountain in the U.S. state of Washington.-The mountain:The mountain has six peaks in the center of the Issaquah Alps forming a triangle between Interstate 90 on the north, the Issaquah-Hobart Road on the southwest, and State Route 18 on the southeast...
as head of the Orthodox Unity School. He banned sales and distillation of alcohol
Alcohol
In chemistry, an alcohol is an organic compound in which the hydroxy functional group is bound to a carbon atom. In particular, this carbon center should be saturated, having single bonds to three other atoms....
s in Mongolia in 1297. The French historian René Grousset
René Grousset
René Grousset was a French historian, curator of both the Cernuschi and Guimet Museums in Paris, and a member of the prestigious Académie française...
applauded his activity in the book The Empire of Steppes. Temur was opposed to imposing any additional fiscal burden on the people. Exemptions from levies and taxes were granted several times for part or all of the Yuan. After his enthronement, Temur exempted Dadu
Khanbaliq
Khanbaliq or Dadu refers to a city which is now Beijing, the current capital of the People's Republic of China...
and Shangdu from taxes for a year. He also exempted the Mongol commoners from taxation for two years. In 1302 he prohibited the collection of anything beyond the established tax quotas. Orders were given that portraits be painted of the khagans and khatuns during the reign of Temur.
However, the government's financial situation deteriorated and the draining of monetary reserves greatly weakened the credibility of the paper currency system.
One problem was that corrupt officials of the Yuan started to show up during his reign, but overall, the empire was still in a good shape. Because his only son Teshou died a year earlier (January 1306), Temür died without a male heir in capital Dadu
Khanbaliq
Khanbaliq or Dadu refers to a city which is now Beijing, the current capital of the People's Republic of China...
on 10 February 1307.
South East Asia
Soon after his enthronement in 1294, Temür called off all preparations for further expansions to Japan and the Đại Việt whose new ruler ignored his grandfather's envoy in 1291. Temür sent his messengers to Japan and ChampaChampa
The kingdom of Champa was an Indianized kingdom that controlled what is now southern and central Vietnam from approximately the 7th century through to 1832.The Cham people are remnants...
to demand submissions. Champa accepted the term but Kamakura shogunate
Kamakura shogunate
The Kamakura shogunate was a military dictatorship in Japan headed by the shoguns from 1185 to 1333. It was based in Kamakura. The Kamakura period draws its name from the capital of the shogunate...
declined it, and the Japanese Wokou
Wokou
Wokou , which literally translates as "Japanese pirates" in English, were pirates of varying origins who raided the coastlines of China and Korea from the 13th century onwards...
attacked Ningbo
Ningbo
Ningbo is a seaport city of northeastern Zhejiang province, Eastern China. Holding sub-provincial administrative status, the municipality has a population of 7,605,700 inhabitants at the 2010 census whom 3,089,180 in the built up area made of 6 urban districts. It lies south of the Hangzhou Bay,...
in Zheijiang province in his late reign. The rulers of Đại Việt, Burma and Sukhotai
Sukhothai kingdom
The Sukhothai Kingdom ) was an early kingdom in the area around the city Sukhothai, in north central Thailand. The Kingdom existed from 1238 till 1438...
visited Khanbalik to greet him as their overlord in 1295, 1297 and 1300. After the compliment from the prince of Burma, he aborted the Burmese campaign and said all his ministers: "They are our friendly subjects. Do not attack their people". Temür also released envoys of Đại Việt to show his goodwill and the Tran court began to send tributary missions. But Temur's government had to quell rebellions in the southwestern mountainous area, led by tribal chieftains like Song Longji and female leader Shejie in 1296. It took long months for the generals Liu Shen and Liu Guojie to suppress these rebellions.
By the request of the Burmese prince, Tribhuvanaditya, Temür dispatched a detachment of Yuan army to Burma in 1297. They successfully repelled the Shans from Myanmar
Myanmar
Burma , officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar , is a country in Southeast Asia. Burma is bordered by China on the northeast, Laos on the east, Thailand on the southeast, Bangladesh on the west, India on the northwest, the Bay of Bengal to the southwest, and the Andaman Sea on the south....
. Temur also received envoys from Siam and Cambodia
Cambodia
Cambodia , officially known as the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a country located in the southern portion of the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia...
. He dispatched Zhou Daguan
Zhou Daguan
Zhou Daguan was a Chinese diplomat under the Temür Khan, Emperor Chengzong of Yuan. He is most well known for his accounts of the customs of Cambodia and the Angkor temple complexes during his visit there. He arrived at Angkor in August 1296, and remained at the court of King Indravarman III...
to Khmer
Khmer people
Khmer people are the predominant ethnic group in Cambodia, accounting for approximately 90% of the 14.8 million people in the country. They speak the Khmer language, which is part of the larger Mon–Khmer language family found throughout Southeast Asia...
Cambodia in 1296, and Zhou wrote an account about his journey. In 1299 Athinkaya murdered his brother Tribhuvanaditya, who submitted to Temur in 1297. In 1300, a punitive expedition
Punitive expedition
A punitive expedition is a military journey undertaken to punish a state or any group of persons outside the borders of the punishing state. It is usually undertaken in response to perceived disobedient or morally wrong behavior, but may be also be a covered revenge...
was launched against Burma
Mongol invasion of Burma
After the conquest of China, Kublai Khan, the founder of the Yuan Dynasty and the Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, invaded the Pagan Kingdom of Burma in 1277 and 1283. However, the Yuan armies later again invaded Burma several times in order to assert supremacy over the territory.- Initial...
for dethroning Temur's protectorate, Tribhuvanaditya. The Shan warlord
Warlord
A warlord is a person with power who has both military and civil control over a subnational area due to armed forces loyal to the warlord and not to a central authority. The term can also mean one who espouses the ideal that war is necessary, and has the means and authority to engage in war...
s of Babai-Xifu, who were quarreling over the royal succession of Pagan, also raided the Yuan realms. Temur sent his Yunnan
Yunnan
Yunnan is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the far southwest of the country spanning approximately and with a population of 45.7 million . The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders Burma, Laos, and Vietnam.Yunnan is situated in a mountainous area, with...
-based force in turn to halt the advance of Babaixifu (Lanna
Lanna
The Kingdom of Lanna was a kingdom centered in present-day northern Thailand from the 13th to 18th centuries. The cultural development of the people of Lanna, the Tai Yuan people, had begun long before as successive Tai Yuan kingdoms preceded Lanna...
Kingdom of Chiangmai) in 1301-03. Although, those campaigns were fruitless, Athinkaya and the Shan lords offered their submission.
The costly expedition spurred rebellions of a Yunnan official, Song Longji, and the Gold-Tooths (ancestors of the Dai people
Dai people
The Dai peoples is one of several ethnic groups living in the Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture and the Dehong Dai and Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture , but by extension can apply to groups in Laos, Vietnam, Thailand, and Burma when Dai is used to mean specifically Tai Lue, Chinese Shan or even...
) in 1301-03. The revolts were eventually suppressed. After Temur Khan ordered to withdraw his army from Burma, Central and southern Burma soon came under the Tai rulers who paid nominal tribute to the Yuan Dynasty.
Relation with other khanates
Ilkhanate
The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate , was a Mongol khanate established in Azerbaijan and Persia in the 13th century, considered a part of the Mongol Empire...
converted to Islam
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
after his enthronement in 1295. He actively supported the expansion of Islam in his empire and renounced all relationship with the "paganish" Yuan Dynasty. In 1296 Temur Khan dispatched Baiju, the military commander, to Mongol Persia, the western region of the Mongol Empire. Ghazan was very impressed with Baiju's abilities. But three years later, he changed his policy and sent his envoys with precious gifts such as cloths, jewels and gold to greet Temür who was the most respected person of the House of Tolui
Tolui
Tolui, was the youngest son of Genghis Khan by his chief khatun Börte...
at time. In response, Temür said "Descendants of Chingis Khan shall be friendly to each other forever" and sent Ghazan a seal reading "王府定國理民之寶" in Chinese script, meaning "Seal certifying the authority of his Royal Highness to establish a country and govern its people as a prince below Khagan". The Ilkhanid envoys presented tribute
Tribute
A tribute is wealth, often in kind, that one party gives to another as a sign of respect or, as was often the case in historical contexts, of submission or allegiance. Various ancient states, which could be called suzerains, exacted tribute from areas they had conquered or threatened to conquer...
to Khagan Temur and inspected properties granted to Hulegu in North China. They stayed at the ordo of Temur Khagan in Dadu
Khanbaliq
Khanbaliq or Dadu refers to a city which is now Beijing, the current capital of the People's Republic of China...
for 4 years. Ghazan called upon other Mongol Khans to unite their will under the Khagan Temur. Kaidu's enemy Bayan Khan of the White Horde strongly supported his appeal. However, the envoys returned to Persia after the death of Ghazan.
Temur also treated Ochicher, a descendant of Borokhula (one of Genghis Khan's "4 steeds"), as an elder statesman and dispatched him to Karakorum
Karakorum
Karakorum was the capital of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century, and of the Northern Yuan in the 14-15th century. Its ruins lie in the northwestern corner of the Övörkhangai Province of Mongolia, near today's town of Kharkhorin, and adjacent to the Erdene Zuu monastery...
to assist his brother Gammala in pacifying the threat from the House of Ogedei
House of Ogedei
The House of Ogedei, sometimes called the Ogedeids were an influential family of Mongol Borjigin from the 12th to 14th centuries. They were descended from Ogedei Khan , a son of Genghis Khan who had become his father's successor, second Great Khan of the Mongol Empire. Ogedei continued the...
and the Chagatai Khanate
Chagatai Khanate
The Chagatai Khanate was a Turko-Mongol khanate that comprised the lands ruled by Chagatai Khan , second son of the Great Khan Genghis Khan, and his descendents and successors...
. While Ochicher and Gammala never achieved the final surrender of Kaidu
Kaidu
Kaidu was the leader of the House of Ogedei and the de facto khan of the Chagatai Khanate. He ruled part of modern-day Xinjiang and Central Asia during the 13th century, and actively opposed his uncle, Kublai Khan, who established the Yuan Dynasty in China until his death in 1301...
, head of the Ogedeid and Chagatayid families, they neutralized him by skillfully exploiting their divisions and reviving military farm
Farm
A farm is an area of land, or, for aquaculture, lake, river or sea, including various structures, devoted primarily to the practice of producing and managing food , fibres and, increasingly, fuel. It is the basic production facility in food production. Farms may be owned and operated by a single...
s up to the Altai Range. In 1293 Tutugh occupied the Baarin tumen, who were allies of Kaidu, on the Ob River
Ob River
The Ob River , also Obi, is a major river in western Siberia, Russia and is the world's seventh longest river. It is the westernmost of the three great Siberian rivers that flow into the Arctic Ocean .The Gulf of Ob is the world's longest estuary.-Names:The Ob is known to the Khanty people as the...
. From 1298 on the Chagatayid Khan Duwa
Duwa
Duwa , also known as Du'a, was khan of the Chagatai Khanate . He was the second son of Baraq. He was the longest reigning monarch of the Chagatayid Khanate and accepted the Great Khan's supremacy...
increased his raids on the Yuan. He launched a surprise attack against the Yuan garrison under Temur's uncle Kokechu in Mongolia
Mongolia
Mongolia is a landlocked country in East and Central Asia. It is bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south, east and west. Although Mongolia does not share a border with Kazakhstan, its western-most point is only from Kazakhstan's eastern tip. Ulan Bator, the capital and largest...
and captured Temur's son-in-law, Korguz
Korguz
Korguz was an Uyghur governor of Khorasan during the reign of the Mongol rulerOgedei Khan. He began his career teaching Mongol children and thereafter assumed governorship of Khorasan. Originally a Buddhist, he converted to Islam later in his life. Korguz defied the family of the recently...
of the Ongud
Ongud
The Öngüd, or Öngüt, or Ongot were a Mongolic tribe, active in Mongolia around the time of Genghis Khan . Many members were Nestorian Christians. They lived in an area lining the Chinese Great Wall, in the northern part of the Ordos and territories to the northeast of it...
when he and his commanders were drunk. However, Duwa was defeated by the Yuan army under Ananda in Gansu
Gansu
' is a province located in the northwest of the People's Republic of China.It lies between the Tibetan and Huangtu plateaus, and borders Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and Ningxia to the north, Xinjiang and Qinghai to the west, Sichuan to the south, and Shaanxi to the east...
and his son-in law and several relations were captured. Although, Duwa and the Yuan generals agreed to exchange their prisoners, Duwa and Qaidu executed Korguz in revenge and cheated the Yuan officials. To reorganize the Yuan defence system in Mongolia, Temur appointed Darmabala's son Khayisan to replace Kokechu. The Yuan army defeated Qaidu south of the Altai Mountains. However, in 1300, Kaidu defeated Khayishan's force. Then Kaidu and Duwa mobilized a large army to attack Karakorum the next year. The Yuan army suffered heavy losses while both sides could not make any decisive victory in September. Duwa was wounded in the battle and Qaidu died soon thereafter. Duwa assisted Kaidu's son Chapar to succeed his father as head of the House of Ogedei and insisted him to recognize Temur's supremacy as Khagan of all Mongols. Because Duwa was more interested in foreign expansion, especially to India, and tired of the civil strife of the Mongols.
Golden Horde
The Golden Horde was a Mongol and later Turkicized khanate that formed the north-western sector of the Mongol Empire...
and Ilkhan Oljeitu negotiated peace with Temür Khan, in order to maintain trade and diplomatic relations, and agreed him to be their nominal overlord. According to the ancient custom which was inherited from the time of Hulegu, Temür thus deigned Oljeitu as the new khan of the Ilkhanate
Ilkhanate
The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate , was a Mongol khanate established in Azerbaijan and Persia in the 13th century, considered a part of the Mongol Empire...
, and sent him a seal reading "真命皇帝和順萬夷之寶" in Chinese script, meaning "Seal of Mandate of Heaven
Mandate of Heaven
The Mandate of Heaven is a traditional Chinese philosophical concept concerning the legitimacy of rulers. It is similar to the European concept of the divine right of kings, in that both sought to legitimaze rule from divine approval; however, unlike the divine right of kings, the Mandate of...
Emperor [i.e. Emperor of China
Emperor of China
The Emperor of China refers to any sovereign of Imperial China reigning between the founding of Qin Dynasty of China, united by the King of Qin in 221 BCE, and the fall of Yuan Shikai's Empire of China in 1916. When referred to as the Son of Heaven , a title that predates the Qin unification, the...
] who made peace with all foreigners/barbarians", which was later used by Oljeitu in his letter to the French king Philip IV of France
Philip IV of France
Philip the Fair was, as Philip IV, King of France from 1285 until his death. He was the husband of Joan I of Navarre, by virtue of which he was, as Philip I, King of Navarre and Count of Champagne from 1284 to 1305.-Youth:A member of the House of Capet, Philip was born at the Palace of...
in 1305. Soon after that the fighting between Duwa and Chapar soon broke out over the question of territory. Temür backed Duwa and sent a large army under Khayisan in the fall of 1306, and Chapar finally surrendered. Tokhta Khan of the Golden Horde
Golden Horde
The Golden Horde was a Mongol and later Turkicized khanate that formed the north-western sector of the Mongol Empire...
also sent his overlord Temur two tumen
Tumen
Tumen or Tümen was a part of the decimal system used by Turkic and Mongol peoples to organize their armies. Tumen is an army unit of 10,000 soldiers...
s to buttress the Yuan frontier.