The Anglo-Dutch Wars

Anglo-Dutch Wars

The Anglo–Dutch Wars were a series of wars fought between the English and the Dutch in the 17th and 18th centuries for control over the seas and trade routes. The first war took place during the English Interregnum, and was fought between the Commonwealth of England and the Dutch Republic...

 are also known as the English Wars.

The English Wars were a series of conflicts between Sweden

Sweden

Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund....

 and Denmark-Norway as part of the Napoleonic Wars

Napoleonic Wars

The Napoleonic Wars were a series of wars declared against Napoleon's French Empire by opposing coalitions that ran from 1803 to 1815. As a continuation of the wars sparked by the French Revolution of 1789, they revolutionised European armies and played out on an unprecedented scale, mainly due to...

. It is named after the most prominent region of its other main participant, the United Kingdom

United Kingdom

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...

, which declared war on Denmark-Norway due to disagreements over the neutrality of Danish trade and to prevent the Danish fleet falling into the hands of the First French Empire

First French Empire

The First French Empire , also known as the Greater French Empire or Napoleonic Empire, was the empire of Napoleon I of France...

. It began with the first battle of Copenhagen

Battle of Copenhagen (1801)

The Battle of Copenhagen was an engagement which saw a British fleet under the command of Admiral Sir Hyde Parker fight and strategically defeat a Danish-Norwegian fleet anchored just off Copenhagen on 2 April 1801. Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson led the main attack. He famously disobeyed Parker's...

 in 1801 and its latter stage from 1807 onwards was followed by the Gunboat War

Gunboat War

The Gunboat War was the naval conflict between Denmark–Norway and the British Navy during the Napoleonic Wars. The war's name is derived from the Danish tactic of employing small gunboats against the conventional Royal Navy...

 and the Dano-Swedish War of 1808-1809

Dano-Swedish War of 1808-1809

The Dano-Swedish War of 1808-1809 was a war between Denmark–Norway and Sweden due to Denmark–Norway's alliance with France and Sweden's alliance with the coalition during the Napoleonic Wars...

.

Prelude

After the death of Denmark-Norway's foreign minister Andreas Peter Bernstorff

Andreas Peter Bernstorff

Andreas Peter Bernstorff was a Danish statesman and politician. He was a Danish minister, father of Christian Günther von Bernstorff, and a guardian of civil and political liberty.-Background and early career:A. P...

 in 1800, crown prince Frederick

Frederick VI of Denmark

Frederick VI reigned as King of Denmark , and as king of Norway .-Regent of Denmark:Frederick's parents were King Christian VII and Caroline Matilda of Wales...

 began exerting his will in all areas. This meant that the finance minister Ernst Heinrich von Schimmelmann

Ernst Heinrich von Schimmelmann

Ernst Heinrich von Schimmelmann was a German-Danish politician, businessman and patron of the arts. His father was Heinrich Carl von Schimmelmann.-Early life and career:Ernst von Schimmelmann was born in Dresden...

 ignored protests from the foreign minister Christian Bernstoff to finally grant the Dutch-born merchant Frédéric de Coninck

Frédéric de Coninck

Frederic de Coninck was a Dutch merchant active in Copenhagen, to which he moved in 1763 to set up a foreign trade and shipping company. He became one of Denmark's largest shipping owners, with a fleet of 64 vessels at the company's height...

's repeated requests for a naval convoy to accompany 40 merchantmen. This convoy transported mainly French and Dutch products from the Dutch East Indies

Dutch East Indies

The Dutch East Indies was a Dutch colony that became modern Indonesia following World War II. It was formed from the nationalised colonies of the Dutch East India Company, which came under the administration of the Netherlands government in 1800....

 to Copenhagen

Copenhagen

Copenhagen is the capital and largest city of Denmark, with an urban population of 1,199,224 and a metropolitan population of 1,930,260 . With the completion of the transnational Øresund Bridge in 2000, Copenhagen has become the centre of the increasingly integrating Øresund Region...

. This led to an 'armed neutrality' and though it gave mixed signals to the rest of the world as to that neutrality Denmark-Norway continued to insist on the inviolability of ships sailing under neutral flags. Several other such convoys set out the following day and these were given orders to resist if foreign naval ships attempted to examine the papers or cargoes in ships under the Danish flag, whatever the size of the force the convoy was faced with. This was a high-risk strategy since many non-Danish ships were sailing under the Danish flag to gain their neutrality benefits, and though the policy proved profitable in its first year it also drew diplomatic protests from the United Kingdom.

In December 1799 an English sailor attempting to check a Danish-flagged ship at Gibraltar

Gibraltar

Gibraltar is a British overseas territory located on the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula at the entrance of the Mediterranean. A peninsula with an area of , it has a northern border with Andalusia, Spain. The Rock of Gibraltar is the major landmark of the region...

 was killed. When in 1800 it appeared that Russia would head a new League of Armed Neutrality

Second League of Armed Neutrality

The Second League of Armed Neutrality or the League of the North was an alliance of the north European naval powers Denmark–Norway, Prussia, Sweden and Russia. It occurred between 1800 and 1801 during the War of the Second Coalition and was initiated by Paul I of Russia...

 the United Kingdom reacted, in summer that year having a squadron of 130 guns try to board a Danish convoy escorted by the 40-gun frigate Freya at Ostend

Ostend

Ostend  is a Belgian city and municipality located in the Flemish province of West Flanders. It comprises the boroughs of Mariakerke , Stene and Zandvoorde, and the city of Ostend proper – the largest on the Belgian coast....

. In accordance with his orders the captain of the Freya refused and gave battle, but was forced to strike its flag after an hour. This led to Denmark-Norway asking Russia to join the Armed Neutrality, though in August a British fleet arrived off Copenhagen. Under threat of a British bombardment Christian Bernstorff promised to stop convoys temporarily while Denmark and the United Kingdom set up common rules on how and when convoys were to be used.

The following month a Russian ambassador arrived in Denmark with a formal invitation for the country to join the League of Armed Neutrality together with Sweden, Russia and Prussia (headed by tsar Paul I of Russia

Paul I of Russia

Paul I was the Emperor of Russia between 1796 and 1801. He also was the 72nd Prince and Grand Master of the Order of Malta .-Childhood:...

) which it did in December 1800. However, in 1801 the Tsar signed an alliance with France, and Russia and France then forced through the closure of all European ports to British trade, leading the United Kingdom to demand that Denmark-Norway immediately leave the League. However, such a departure would make Denmark-Norway appear to ally itself with the United Kingdom and thus almost certainly lead to its being invaded by one of France or Russia's allies (Sweden had an eye to gaining Norway from Denmark and, if Prussia could conquer Jutland

Jutland

Jutland , historically also called Cimbria, is the name of the peninsula that juts out in Northern Europe toward the rest of Scandinavia, forming the mainland part of Denmark. It has the North Sea to its west, Kattegat and Skagerrak to its north, the Baltic Sea to its east, and the Danish–German...

 at the same time, British access to the Baltic Sea

Baltic Sea

The Baltic Sea is a brackish mediterranean sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from 20°E to 26°E longitude. It is bounded by the Scandinavian Peninsula, the mainland of Europe, and the Danish islands. It drains into the Kattegat by way of the Øresund, the Great Belt and...

 could be completely cut off). Denmark-Norway thus chose the lesser of two evils and refused all British proposals for negotiations. The United Kingdom thus sent a fleet against Denmark on 12 March 1801 to remove Denmark-Norway from the League by force.

Copenhagen (1801)

The Danes had begun to prepare for a possible attack from the British, but much of the fleet was, in late March, not ready after the winter and it could take up to six weeks to make it ready. So the Danish defense was that the ships they had available should protect the entrance to Copenhagen by lying anchored in the curved line from Trekroner Fort

Trekroner Fort

Trekroner Søfort is a fortification at the entrance to the Copenhagen harbour. It was part of Copenhagen's fortifications....

 to Amager

Amager

Amager is a Danish island in the Øresund. The Danish capital, Copenhagen, is partly situated on Amager, which is connected to the much larger island of Zealand by five bridges.-History:...

. The command was given to Olfert Fischer

Olfert Fischer

Johan Olfert Fischer was a Danish officer in the Royal Dano-Norwegian Navy. He commanded the Dano-Norwegian fleet against British forces under Lord Nelson during the Battle of Copenhagen on 2 April 1801.-Life and career:...

, who placed himself in middle of the formation, with his ship Danneborg. The lack of crew on the various ships were acquired by offering 15 "riksdaler" in wages, followed by a quick training in how to use a cannon and message to fight bravely for the king and country.

The British fleet could pass Kronborg unimpeded on March 30 and continued towards Copenhagen along the Swedish coast. Crown Prince Frederick had, out of fear that the Swedes should be exempted from the Sound Dues

Sound Dues

The Sound Dues were a toll on the use of the Sound which constituted up to two thirds of Denmark's state income in the 16th and 17th centuries...

, said no to help from them in the battle. The Swedish fleet was still, at the initiative of Gustav IV Adolf, on their way to help the Danes, but was prevented due to bad weather. By midday the British fleet had anchor at Taarbæk reef. Admiral Sir Hyde Parker's plan was that half of his fleet should attack the Danish fleet from the south, while the rest should attack the Danish blockade in Kronløbet. The attack was then to be terminated by an attack on the island of Trekroner. The following days the British were preparing to attack, and they sailed further south, past Copenhagen, to avoid the Danish land batteries Sixtus, Quintus and Trekroner.

Lord Horatio Nelson had been given command of twelve of the British liners, and had the task to get them through the tight defense that surrounded Copenhagen's reef, that it already was extremely difficult to navigate through. He nevertheless took the initiative to attack, and four of his largest ships (Elephant

HMS Elephant (1786)

HMS Elephant was a 74-gun third-rate ship of the line of the Royal Navy. She was built by George Parsons in Bursledon, Hampshire, and launched on 24 August 1786....

, Defiance

HMS Defiance (1783)

HMS Defiance was a 74-gun third rate ship of the line of the Royal Navy, built by Randall and Co., at Rotherhithe on the River Thames, and launched on 10 December 1783.-History:...

, Russel

HMS Russell (1764)

HMS Russell was a 74-gun third rate ship of the line of the Royal Navy, launched on 10 November 1764 at Deptford.In 1782, she was commanded by Captain James Saumarez at the Battle of the Saintes. In 1794 she was part of Admiral Howe's fleet at the Glorious First of June, and in the following year...

 and Bellona

HMS Bellona (1760)

HMS Bellona was a 74-gun Bellona-class third-rate ship of the line of the Royal Navy. Designed by Sir Thomas Slade, she was a prototype for the iconic 74-gun ships of the latter part of the 18th century...

) quickly grounded. The battle lasted long and after four hours of intense fighting it was not yet decided who would win. Parker, who was with the rest of the fleet, 200 meters from the Danish line of defense, was fired upon from the cannons at Trekrone Fort, and signaled to Nelson that he sould withdraw the fleet. Nelson, however, was determined to win the battle and ignored the order. Nelson had noticed that many of the Danish ships that had hoisted white flag of surrender, still were firing. Because of this, Nelson sent an curiae with a letter to Crown Prince Frederick in which he argued that he could not account for the remaining crew on board Danish ships if they continued the fight after they had surrended. Crown Prince Frederick could from his position at the port see that the battle no longer had any purpose and agreed on a truce without consolidating the Danish-Norwegian commanders, Olfert Fischer and Steen Bille

Steen Bille

Disambiguation: See Steen Andersen Bille for relationships to other naval officers in the family-Early Years:Influenced by his father’s roll in the defence of Copenhagen in 1807, and the visits of many leading naval figures to his parents’ house, he became a cadet in 1809 at the age of 12, seven...

.

Aftermath

Still whereas the British fleet had been heading for Denmark the political situation had changed drastically. On March 21, the British had entered into peace negotiations with France, and on 24 March, they had sent diplomats to Russia in order to clear the way for a political understanding. The British did not know that shortly afterwords the tsar was to be assassinated, and his son Alexander

Alexander I of Russia

Alexander I of Russia , served as Emperor of Russia from 23 March 1801 to 1 December 1825 and the first Russian King of Poland from 1815 to 1825. He was also the first Russian Grand Duke of Finland and Lithuania....

 would take over the throne. Tsar Alexander would also prove to be much more interested in getting into diplomatic relations with the English than his father had been. For by the death of Tsar Paul, the League of Armed Neutrality was to be dissolved.

The Swedish King, Gustav IV Adolf, chose to look at Denmark-Norway's truce with Britain as a treason against the League of Armed Neutrality, and exploited this by playing on Denmark-Norway's weak position in St. Petersburg. The reason for this was because Sweden in fact had great expectations about acquiring Norway from Denmark. The plans still had to be abandoned because of the lack of support from any of the major nations.

Prussia

Prussia

Prussia was a German kingdom and historic state originating out of the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg. For centuries, the House of Hohenzollern ruled Prussia, successfully expanding its size by way of an unusually well-organized and effective army. Prussia shaped the history...

, who Denmark-Norway had contributed to push into the League of Armed Neutrality, had withdrawn from the league as soon as the news of the throne changed in Russia reached Berlin. At the same time Prussia now demanded that Denmark-Norway should cede Hamburg

Hamburg

-History:The first historic name for the city was, according to Claudius Ptolemy's reports, Treva.But the city takes its modern name, Hamburg, from the first permanent building on the site, a castle whose construction was ordered by the Emperor Charlemagne in AD 808...

, while Prussia keep both Hanover

Hanover

Hanover or Hannover, on the river Leine, is the capital of the federal state of Lower Saxony , Germany and was once by personal union the family seat of the Hanoverian Kings of Great Britain, under their title as the dukes of Brunswick-Lüneburg...

 and Laurenburg

Laurenburg

Laurenburg is a municipality in the Rhein-Lahn district of Rhineland-Palatinate, in western Germany. The town, a health resort situated in the lower Lahn River valley, belongs to the Diez Municipal Association.-History:...

. Denmark-Norway who had been forced to accept several bitter diplomatic defeats due to their neutrality policy, now turned to Britain through direct negotiations with Lord Hawkesbury

Charles Jenkinson, 1st Earl of Liverpool

Charles Jenkinson, 1st Earl of Liverpool PC , known as the Lord Hawkesbury between 1786 and 1796, was a British statesman. He was the father of Prime Minister Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool....

. Christian Bernstorff had in late May traveled to London

London

London is the capital city of :England and the :United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its...

in order to negotiate the possibility for a return of the parts of the Danish-Norwegian fleet that had been captured by the British during the battle of Copenhagen. At the same time, Bernstorff also negotiated regarding a possible British withdraw from the Danish-Norwegian colonies they had occupied during the short war.

Copenhagen (1807)

Alliance with France

State bankruptcy

From 1807 to 1813 the war was characterised by high inflation, with wages increasing several hundred percent and grain prices even more. It was not cheap for Denmark to keep an army operating in Holstein and although in 1810 the Danish government introduced a progressive income tax to cover the deficit, it did not have the administrative machinery needed to get this new system to work but instead tried to make up the deficit by printing more and more banknotes. From 1806 to 1813 the currency's total face value increased sixfold but the notes' real value significantly decreased. Thus the state itself went bankrupt, trying to remedy the situation by rushing through a regulation on 5 January 1813 for a change in the monetary system. The regulation determined that a new foreign bank would replace the old banks and start minting new coins with values fixed against foreign banknotes. This made minor savers, people with their money tied up in government bonds, or people holding higher-value banknotes relatively poor.

Literature

• Bourgois, Eric Lerdrup & Høffding, Niels(2007) - Danmark og Napoleon (Hovedland) ISBN 978-87-7070-061-0.
• Feldbæk, Ole(2001) - Slaget på Reden (Politikens Forlag) ISBN 87-567-4001-8
• Hillingsø, K.G.H.(2007) - Landkrigen, 1807 (Gyldendal) ISBN 978-87-02-06004-1.
• Lademann, Lars Lindeberg(1974) - De så det ske : Englandskrigene 1801-14 : Slaget på Reden • Guldalder • Statsbankerot ISBN 87-15-08075-7
• Lindqvist, Herman(2004) - Napoleon (Schibsted forlagene) ISBN 978-82-516-2157-1
• Pocock, Tom(1987) - Horatio Nelson (Pimlico)
• Scocozza, Benito & Jensen, Grethe(1999) - Danmarkshistoriens Hvem, Hvad og Hvornår (Politikens Forlag) ISBN 87-567-6094-9
• Scocozza, Benito(1997) - Politikens bog om danske monarker (Politikens Forlag) ISBN 87-567-5772-7