Errors and Expectations
Encyclopedia
Mina Shaughnessy
’s Errors and Expectations: A Guide for the Teacher of Basic Writing, published in 1977 by Oxford University Press
, was the first book-length investigation of writing problems experienced by under-prepared college freshmen. At the time of the book’s publication, Shaughnessy was the director of the Instructional Resource Center and an associate dean of CUNY, having previously worked both as a basic writing
(BW) instructor and the director of basic writing at City College
in New York
.
The book grew out of Shaughnessy’s nine years’ experience teaching basic writing to open admissions
students. Overwhelmed by the error-ridden compositions produced by her students, she systematically analyzed 4,000 placement essays written by incoming freshmen at City College in order to better understand the logic of student errors in composition. This research—funded in part by the Carnegie Foundation
grant—coupled with her own experience provides the foundation of the book which seeks both to inform basic writing instructors and provide them with a means for approaching their students’ areas of weakness. Perhaps the central and most important observation Shaughnessy
makes is that there is a pattern to student error.
Chapter 1: Introduction. Shaughnessy discusses the background of the open admissions movement, detailing her own experience when she begins to grade the essays produced by her first group of open admissions students and finds herself unprepared to proceed in spite of previous years of experience in teaching composition. She also provides a rationale for her focus on error, explaining the realities of academia, the ways in which errors are viewed, and the relationship between reader and writer.
Chapter 2: Handwriting
and punctuation
. After briefly discussing handwriting, the bulk of the chapter (27 of 29 pages) focuses on the myriad ways in which basic writers use and misuse punctuation. In order to understand the logic behind the errors, Shaughnessy explores the concept of the sentence and the differences between spoken and written English. Commas, periods, and capitalization are the primary elements examined.
Chapter 3: Syntax
. Four general categories of error are examined (accidental errors, blurred patterns, consolidation errors, and inversions) in the context of the academic tone which college students are expected to adopt and with which basic writers often struggle as they expand their writing ability.
Chapter 4: Common errors. Shaughnessy provides examples in the primary problem areas of verbs, nouns, pronouns, and subject-verb agreement before discussing the discouragement felt by teachers and students alike as they approach the recurring common errors present in student writing. She offers simple suggestions for reducing error and provides a thorough diagnostic test.
Chapter 5: Spelling
. Shaughnessy first makes a distinction between misspelling and incorrectly inflecting various parts of speech before classifying spelling mistakes under four heads: problems with the spelling system, incongruities between spoken and written English, ignorance of spelling rules, and the inexperienced eye. She suggests nine steps in addressing spelling problems and warns against two general assumptions—that adult students can’t be taught how to spell correctly and that spelling can only be taught one way.
Chapter 6: Vocabulary
. Basic writing students enter college without having developed the vocabulary of academia, a slow-growing task that generally takes years to accomplish. Shaughnessy compares the writing of basic, intermediate, and advanced freshman writers to discuss their vocabulary skills and the depth of ideas investigated through vocabulary. She also indicates basic writing students’ needs as they approach vocabulary-rich courses (such as biology or anatomy).
Chapter 7: Beyond the sentence. Although many teachers complain that basic writing students lack ideas, Shaughnessy claims that their ideas are hidden by their novice skills and attempts at elaboration. She suggests three needs specific to BW students: how to arrive at a main idea, how to see and create structure in writing, and how to recognize specific patterns that link together sentences and paragraphs.
Chapter 8: Expectations. Shaughnessy discusses the powerful link between expectations and achievement, showing sample essays from the beginning and end of a semester course and citing statistics that demonstrate the effectiveness of basic writing courses.
In more recent years, Shaughnessy’s work has been criticized for a variety of reasons: devoting so much time to grammar instruction; categorizing only the errors of finished products, rather than the errors of each draft; and focusing so completely on error, despite the fact that she herself insists that error correction should not be the only focus of a basic writing course, among others.
Mina P. Shaughnessy
Mina P. Shaughnessy , born in the mining town of Lead, South Dakota, was a teacher and innovator in the field of basic writing at the City University of New York .- Early life :...
’s Errors and Expectations: A Guide for the Teacher of Basic Writing, published in 1977 by Oxford University Press
Oxford University Press
Oxford University Press is the largest university press in the world. It is a department of the University of Oxford and is governed by a group of 15 academics appointed by the Vice-Chancellor known as the Delegates of the Press. They are headed by the Secretary to the Delegates, who serves as...
, was the first book-length investigation of writing problems experienced by under-prepared college freshmen. At the time of the book’s publication, Shaughnessy was the director of the Instructional Resource Center and an associate dean of CUNY, having previously worked both as a basic writing
Basic writing
Basic writing, or developmental writing, is a discipline of composition studies which focuses on the writing of students sometimes otherwise called "remedial" or "underprepared", usually freshman college students.-Defining Basic Writing:...
(BW) instructor and the director of basic writing at City College
City College of New York
The City College of the City University of New York is a senior college of the City University of New York , in New York City. It is also the oldest of the City University's twenty-three institutions of higher learning...
in New York
New York
New York is a state in the Northeastern region of the United States. It is the nation's third most populous state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south, and by Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east...
.
The book grew out of Shaughnessy’s nine years’ experience teaching basic writing to open admissions
Open admissions
Open admissions is a type of unselective and non-competitive college admissions process in the United States in which the only criterion for entrance is a high school diploma or a General Educational Development certificate.This form of "inclusive" admissions is used by many public junior...
students. Overwhelmed by the error-ridden compositions produced by her students, she systematically analyzed 4,000 placement essays written by incoming freshmen at City College in order to better understand the logic of student errors in composition. This research—funded in part by the Carnegie Foundation
Carnegie Corporation of New York
Carnegie Corporation of New York, which was established by Andrew Carnegie in 1911 "to promote the advancement and diffusion of knowledge and understanding," is one of the oldest, largest and most influential of American foundations...
grant—coupled with her own experience provides the foundation of the book which seeks both to inform basic writing instructors and provide them with a means for approaching their students’ areas of weakness. Perhaps the central and most important observation Shaughnessy
Mina P. Shaughnessy
Mina P. Shaughnessy , born in the mining town of Lead, South Dakota, was a teacher and innovator in the field of basic writing at the City University of New York .- Early life :...
makes is that there is a pattern to student error.
Summary
Errors and Expectations devotes a chapter to eight of the (at the time) most salient considerations in basic writing. Each chapter follows a three-pronged format: first, a range of examples; second, an explanation of causes of the problems; third, suggestions with which to approach the problems. Although more than thirty years have passed since the book’s original publication date, the majority of the information remains pertinent and insightful today.Chapter 1: Introduction. Shaughnessy discusses the background of the open admissions movement, detailing her own experience when she begins to grade the essays produced by her first group of open admissions students and finds herself unprepared to proceed in spite of previous years of experience in teaching composition. She also provides a rationale for her focus on error, explaining the realities of academia, the ways in which errors are viewed, and the relationship between reader and writer.
Chapter 2: Handwriting
Handwriting
Handwriting is a person's particular & individual style of writing with pen or pencil, which contrasts with "Hand" which is an impersonal and formalised writing style in several historical varieties...
and punctuation
Punctuation
Punctuation marks are symbols that indicate the structure and organization of written language, as well as intonation and pauses to be observed when reading aloud.In written English, punctuation is vital to disambiguate the meaning of sentences...
. After briefly discussing handwriting, the bulk of the chapter (27 of 29 pages) focuses on the myriad ways in which basic writers use and misuse punctuation. In order to understand the logic behind the errors, Shaughnessy explores the concept of the sentence and the differences between spoken and written English. Commas, periods, and capitalization are the primary elements examined.
Chapter 3: Syntax
Syntax
In linguistics, syntax is the study of the principles and rules for constructing phrases and sentences in natural languages....
. Four general categories of error are examined (accidental errors, blurred patterns, consolidation errors, and inversions) in the context of the academic tone which college students are expected to adopt and with which basic writers often struggle as they expand their writing ability.
Chapter 4: Common errors. Shaughnessy provides examples in the primary problem areas of verbs, nouns, pronouns, and subject-verb agreement before discussing the discouragement felt by teachers and students alike as they approach the recurring common errors present in student writing. She offers simple suggestions for reducing error and provides a thorough diagnostic test.
Chapter 5: Spelling
Spelling
Spelling is the writing of one or more words with letters and diacritics. In addition, the term often, but not always, means an accepted standard spelling or the process of naming the letters...
. Shaughnessy first makes a distinction between misspelling and incorrectly inflecting various parts of speech before classifying spelling mistakes under four heads: problems with the spelling system, incongruities between spoken and written English, ignorance of spelling rules, and the inexperienced eye. She suggests nine steps in addressing spelling problems and warns against two general assumptions—that adult students can’t be taught how to spell correctly and that spelling can only be taught one way.
Chapter 6: Vocabulary
Vocabulary
A person's vocabulary is the set of words within a language that are familiar to that person. A vocabulary usually develops with age, and serves as a useful and fundamental tool for communication and acquiring knowledge...
. Basic writing students enter college without having developed the vocabulary of academia, a slow-growing task that generally takes years to accomplish. Shaughnessy compares the writing of basic, intermediate, and advanced freshman writers to discuss their vocabulary skills and the depth of ideas investigated through vocabulary. She also indicates basic writing students’ needs as they approach vocabulary-rich courses (such as biology or anatomy).
Chapter 7: Beyond the sentence. Although many teachers complain that basic writing students lack ideas, Shaughnessy claims that their ideas are hidden by their novice skills and attempts at elaboration. She suggests three needs specific to BW students: how to arrive at a main idea, how to see and create structure in writing, and how to recognize specific patterns that link together sentences and paragraphs.
Chapter 8: Expectations. Shaughnessy discusses the powerful link between expectations and achievement, showing sample essays from the beginning and end of a semester course and citing statistics that demonstrate the effectiveness of basic writing courses.
Reception and Influence
Over 12,000 hardcover copies were sold within six months after it was published (the typical number for a scholarly book with a focused topic was 1,000), and by 1979, more than 40,000 paperback copies had been sold.http://www.bedfordstmartins.com/basicbib/content/ht_bwdc.html#24 The book has been cited as one of the most important and influential studies of basic writing, relevant for teachers of both remedial courses and writing in general.In more recent years, Shaughnessy’s work has been criticized for a variety of reasons: devoting so much time to grammar instruction; categorizing only the errors of finished products, rather than the errors of each draft; and focusing so completely on error, despite the fact that she herself insists that error correction should not be the only focus of a basic writing course, among others.