Ethics (book)
Encyclopedia
Ethics is a philosophical
book written by Benedict de Spinoza. It was written in Latin
. Although it was published posthumously in 1677, it is his most famous work, and is considered his magnum opus
.
In Ethics, Spinoza attempts to demonstrate a "fully cohesive philosophical system that strives to provide a coherent picture of reality and to comprehend the meaning of an ethical life. Following a logical step-by-step format, it defines in turn the nature of God, the mind, human bondage to the emotions, and the power of understanding -- moving from a consideration of the eternal, to speculate upon humanity's place in the natural order, freedom, and the path to attainable happiness."
s, axiom
s, and lemmas
. These are followed by proposition
s that can contain notes, proofs
, and corollaries
. Appendices that contain explanations are also employed. This type of presentation imitates Euclid
's Elements of Geometry
.
Spinoza claimed that God (Nature) is the same as the one substance that has infinite attributes. As a result, God necessarily and really exists. Everything in the universe depends on God's divine nature and necessarily exists in its particular manner. As a result of His divine nature, God had to bring everything into being in the way that He did. The things that exist because of God (Nature) are completely necessary and perfect. Nature has no goal.
God (Nature) is a thinking thing, as well as being an extended thing. The way that ideas are related in a mind is the same as the way that things in the world are related to each other. Ideas of particular external things (modes) depend on the constitution of both the thinker's body and the external things. Association of ideas occurs after two bodies have been thought at one time. A mind knows an external body only as an idea of modifications of the mind's own body. True ideas (ideas that agree with their objects) are ideas that refer to God (Nature). Reason regards all things as necessary. Because a mind's wishes are always the effect of a previous cause, there is no free will in a mind.
, he maintained that he did not mean to equate God with mere material nature. In this sense, Einstein
said, "I believe in Spinoza's God who reveals himself in the orderly harmony of what exists, not in a God who concerns himself with fates and actions of human beings.”
Philosophy
Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational...
book written by Benedict de Spinoza. It was written in Latin
Latin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
. Although it was published posthumously in 1677, it is his most famous work, and is considered his magnum opus
Masterpiece
Masterpiece in modern usage refers to a creation that has been given much critical praise, especially one that is considered the greatest work of a person's career or to a work of outstanding creativity, skill or workmanship....
.
Style
The style is, as Spinoza says, "demonstrated in geometrical order" with definitionDefinition
A definition is a passage that explains the meaning of a term , or a type of thing. The term to be defined is the definiendum. A term may have many different senses or meanings...
s, axiom
Axiom
In traditional logic, an axiom or postulate is a proposition that is not proven or demonstrated but considered either to be self-evident or to define and delimit the realm of analysis. In other words, an axiom is a logical statement that is assumed to be true...
s, and lemmas
Lemma (mathematics)
In mathematics, a lemma is a proven proposition which is used as a stepping stone to a larger result rather than as a statement in-and-of itself...
. These are followed by proposition
Proposition
In logic and philosophy, the term proposition refers to either the "content" or "meaning" of a meaningful declarative sentence or the pattern of symbols, marks, or sounds that make up a meaningful declarative sentence...
s that can contain notes, proofs
Formal proof
A formal proof or derivation is a finite sequence of sentences each of which is an axiom or follows from the preceding sentences in the sequence by a rule of inference. The last sentence in the sequence is a theorem of a formal system...
, and corollaries
Corollary
A corollary is a statement that follows readily from a previous statement.In mathematics a corollary typically follows a theorem. The use of the term corollary, rather than proposition or theorem, is intrinsically subjective...
. Appendices that contain explanations are also employed. This type of presentation imitates Euclid
Euclid
Euclid , fl. 300 BC, also known as Euclid of Alexandria, was a Greek mathematician, often referred to as the "Father of Geometry". He was active in Alexandria during the reign of Ptolemy I...
's Elements of Geometry
Euclid's Elements
Euclid's Elements is a mathematical and geometric treatise consisting of 13 books written by the Greek mathematician Euclid in Alexandria c. 300 BC. It is a collection of definitions, postulates , propositions , and mathematical proofs of the propositions...
.
Parts
Spinoza divided his book into five parts. In them, he investigated God, human mind, human emotions, and human understanding.Part I. Concerning God.
Spinoza claimed that God (Nature) is the same as the one substance that has infinite attributes. As a result, God necessarily and really exists. Everything in the universe depends on God's divine nature and necessarily exists in its particular manner. As a result of His divine nature, God had to bring everything into being in the way that He did. The things that exist because of God (Nature) are completely necessary and perfect. Nature has no goal.
Part II. Of the Nature and Origin of Mind.
God (Nature) is a thinking thing, as well as being an extended thing. The way that ideas are related in a mind is the same as the way that things in the world are related to each other. Ideas of particular external things (modes) depend on the constitution of both the thinker's body and the external things. Association of ideas occurs after two bodies have been thought at one time. A mind knows an external body only as an idea of modifications of the mind's own body. True ideas (ideas that agree with their objects) are ideas that refer to God (Nature). Reason regards all things as necessary. Because a mind's wishes are always the effect of a previous cause, there is no free will in a mind.
God or Nature
Spinoza wrote the words "God or Nature" [Deus sive Natura] twice. The first instance was in the Preface to Part IV, fourth paragraph. The second was in the Proof of Part IV, Proposition IV. In so doing, he made it possible to interpret his work as "a complete view of the universe as a whole, and of man's place in the universe…." In Spinoza's Letter XXI to Henry OldenburgHenry Oldenburg
Henry Oldenburg was a German theologian known as a diplomat and a natural philosopher. He was one of the foremost intelligencers of Europe of the seventeenth century, with a network of correspondents to rival those of Fabri de Peiresc, Marin Mersenne and Ismaël Boulliau...
, he maintained that he did not mean to equate God with mere material nature. In this sense, Einstein
Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist who developed the theory of general relativity, effecting a revolution in physics. For this achievement, Einstein is often regarded as the father of modern physics and one of the most prolific intellects in human history...
said, "I believe in Spinoza's God who reveals himself in the orderly harmony of what exists, not in a God who concerns himself with fates and actions of human beings.”
External links
- The 1951 translation of the Ethics into English by R. H. M. Elwes is available in two places:
- Wikisource
- Project Gutenberg
- Original Latin text
- EthicaDB hosts translations in several languages.
- A simplified and abridged translation of the Ethics, by Jonathan BennettJonathan Bennett (philosopher)Jonathan Francis Bennett is a British philosopher of language and metaphysics, and a historian of early modern philosophy.Born in Greymouth, New Zealand, Bennett was educated at the University of Oxford. He has taught at the University of Cambridge , Simon Fraser University , the University of...
- Audiobook version on LibriVox