Ethics of care
Encyclopedia
The ethics of care is a normative ethical theory
; that is, a theory about what makes actions right or wrong. It is one of a cluster of normative ethical theories that were developed by feminists in the second half of the twentieth century. While consequentialist
and deontological ethical theories emphasize universal standards and impartiality, ethics of care emphasize the importance of relationships.
The basic beliefs of the theory are:
. Gilligan was a student of developmental psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg
and developed her moral theory in contrast to her mentor's theory of stages of moral development
. This concept of human maturity measures, and is used to assess progress along the following stages:
Gilligan advanced the view that this model must be wrong. Measuring progress by it resulted in boys being found to be more morally mature than girls, and this held for adult men and women as well. This was not an objective scale of moral development, Gilligan argued. It displayed a particularly masculine perspective on morality, founded on justice and abstract duties or obligations. She also stated that Kohlberg's founding study consisted of largely male participants.
Gilligan offered a difference feminist perspective: men and women have tendencies to view morality in different terms, with women emphasizing empathy and compassion over the notions of morality that are privileged by Kohlberg's scale.
theories (e.g. utilitarianism
) and deontological theories (e.g. Kantian ethics). This sort of outlook is what feminist critics call a 'justice view' of morality. A morality of care rests on the understanding of relationships as a response to another in their terms.
Care-focused feminism is a branch of feminist thought, informed primarily by ethics of care as developed by Carol Gilligan
and Nel Noddings
. This body of theory is critical of how caring is socially engendered to women and consequently devalued. “Care-focused feminists regard women’s capacity for care as a human strength” which can and should be taught to and expected of men as well as women. Noddings proposes that ethical caring has the potential to be a more concrete evaluative model of moral dilemma, than an ethic of justice. Noddings’ care-focused feminism requires practical application of relational ethics, predicated on an ethic of care.
Ethics of care is also a basis for care-focused feminist theorizing on maternal ethics. Critical of how society engenders caring labor, theorists Sara Ruddick
, Virginia Held, and Eva Feder Kittay suggest caring should be performed and care givers valued in both public and private spheres. Their theories recognize caring as an ethically relevant issue. This proposed paradigm shift in ethics encourages that an ethic of caring be the social responsibility of both men and women.
Ethics
Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, is a branch of philosophy that addresses questions about morality—that is, concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime, etc.Major branches of ethics include:...
; that is, a theory about what makes actions right or wrong. It is one of a cluster of normative ethical theories that were developed by feminists in the second half of the twentieth century. While consequentialist
Consequentialism
Consequentialism is the class of normative ethical theories holding that the consequences of one's conduct are the ultimate basis for any judgment about the rightness of that conduct...
and deontological ethical theories emphasize universal standards and impartiality, ethics of care emphasize the importance of relationships.
The basic beliefs of the theory are:
- All individuals are interdependent for achieving their interests
- Those particularly vulnerable to our choices and their outcomes deserve extra consideration to be measured according to
- the level of their vulnerability to one's choices
- the level of their affectedness by one's choices and no one else's
- It is necessary to attend to the contextual details of the situation in order to safeguard and promote the actual specific interests of those involved
Historical background
One of the founders of the ethics of care was American ethicist and psychologist Carol GilliganCarol Gilligan
Carol Gilligan is an American feminist, ethicist, and psychologist best known for her work with and against Lawrence Kohlberg on ethical community and ethical relationships, and certain subject-object problems in ethics. She is currently a Professor at New York University and a Visiting Professor...
. Gilligan was a student of developmental psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg
Lawrence Kohlberg
Lawrence Kohlberg was a Jewish American psychologist born in Bronxville, New York, who served as a professor at the University of Chicago, as well as Harvard University. Having specialized in research on moral education and reasoning, he is best known for his theory of stages of moral development...
and developed her moral theory in contrast to her mentor's theory of stages of moral development
Kohlberg's stages of moral development
Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development constitute an adaptation of a psychological theory originally conceived of by the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget...
. This concept of human maturity measures, and is used to assess progress along the following stages:
| Stage | Goal |
|---|---|
| Pre-conventional | Stage 1: Obedience to authority Stage 2: Nice behavior in exchange for future favors |
| Conventional | Stage 3: Live up to others' expectations Stage 4: Follow rules to maintain social order |
| Post-conventional | Stage 5: Adhere to social contract when it is valid Stage 6: Personal moral system based on abstract principles |
Gilligan advanced the view that this model must be wrong. Measuring progress by it resulted in boys being found to be more morally mature than girls, and this held for adult men and women as well. This was not an objective scale of moral development, Gilligan argued. It displayed a particularly masculine perspective on morality, founded on justice and abstract duties or obligations. She also stated that Kohlberg's founding study consisted of largely male participants.
Gilligan offered a difference feminist perspective: men and women have tendencies to view morality in different terms, with women emphasizing empathy and compassion over the notions of morality that are privileged by Kohlberg's scale.
Comparing ethics of care with traditional ethical positions
Ethics of care contrasts with more well-known ethical views, such as consequentialistConsequentialism
Consequentialism is the class of normative ethical theories holding that the consequences of one's conduct are the ultimate basis for any judgment about the rightness of that conduct...
theories (e.g. utilitarianism
Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism is an ethical theory holding that the proper course of action is the one that maximizes the overall "happiness", by whatever means necessary. It is thus a form of consequentialism, meaning that the moral worth of an action is determined only by its resulting outcome, and that one can...
) and deontological theories (e.g. Kantian ethics). This sort of outlook is what feminist critics call a 'justice view' of morality. A morality of care rests on the understanding of relationships as a response to another in their terms.
Ethics of care and feminist ethics
While some feminists have criticized care-based ethics for reinforcing traditional stereotypes of a “good woman” others have embraced parts of this paradigm under the theoretical concept of care-focused feminism.Care-focused feminism is a branch of feminist thought, informed primarily by ethics of care as developed by Carol Gilligan
Carol Gilligan
Carol Gilligan is an American feminist, ethicist, and psychologist best known for her work with and against Lawrence Kohlberg on ethical community and ethical relationships, and certain subject-object problems in ethics. She is currently a Professor at New York University and a Visiting Professor...
and Nel Noddings
Nel Noddings
Nel Noddings is an American feminist, educationalist, and philosopher best known for her work in philosophy of education, educational theory, and ethics of care.-Biography:...
. This body of theory is critical of how caring is socially engendered to women and consequently devalued. “Care-focused feminists regard women’s capacity for care as a human strength” which can and should be taught to and expected of men as well as women. Noddings proposes that ethical caring has the potential to be a more concrete evaluative model of moral dilemma, than an ethic of justice. Noddings’ care-focused feminism requires practical application of relational ethics, predicated on an ethic of care.
Ethics of care is also a basis for care-focused feminist theorizing on maternal ethics. Critical of how society engenders caring labor, theorists Sara Ruddick
Sara Ruddick
Sara Ruddick was a feminist philosopher and the author of Maternal Thinking: Toward a Politics of Peace.. Ruddick taught philosophy at the New School of Social Research. She is best known for her analysis of the practices of thinking that emerge from the care of children...
, Virginia Held, and Eva Feder Kittay suggest caring should be performed and care givers valued in both public and private spheres. Their theories recognize caring as an ethically relevant issue. This proposed paradigm shift in ethics encourages that an ethic of caring be the social responsibility of both men and women.
Theorists
- Sandra BartkySandra BartkySandra L. Bartky is a professor emeritus of philosophy and gender studies at the University of Illinois at Chicago. Her main research areas have been feminism and phenomenology...
- Grace Clement
- Carol GilliganCarol GilliganCarol Gilligan is an American feminist, ethicist, and psychologist best known for her work with and against Lawrence Kohlberg on ethical community and ethical relationships, and certain subject-object problems in ethics. She is currently a Professor at New York University and a Visiting Professor...
- Virginia Held
- Sarah HoaglandSarah HoaglandSarah Lucia Hoagland is Professor of Philosophy and Women's Studies at Northeastern Illinois University in Chicago. She is author of Lesbian Ethics, and the co-editor of For Lesbians Only, an anthology of writing on the topic of Lesbian Separatism, with Julia Penelope and Re-reading the Canon:...
- Eva Feder Kittay
- Rita Manning
- Nel NoddingsNel NoddingsNel Noddings is an American feminist, educationalist, and philosopher best known for her work in philosophy of education, educational theory, and ethics of care.-Biography:...
- Sara RuddickSara RuddickSara Ruddick was a feminist philosopher and the author of Maternal Thinking: Toward a Politics of Peace.. Ruddick taught philosophy at the New School of Social Research. She is best known for her analysis of the practices of thinking that emerge from the care of children...
- Ellen Feder
- Michael SloteMichael SloteMichael Slote is UST Professor of Ethics at the University of Miami and is author of From Morality to Virtue and Morals From Motives . He was previously professor of philosophy at the University of Maryland, and at Trinity College Dublin....
Further reading and External links
- Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Feminist Ethics
- Ethics of Care article at Carnegie Mellon website
- Gilligan's stages of moral development
- Nel Noddings biography
- Gilligan, Carol. In A Different Voice. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 1982.
- Jagger, Alison. “Caring as a Feminist Practice of Moral Reason.” Justice and Care: Essential Readings in Feminist Ethics. Ed. Virginia Held. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. 1995.
- Noddings, Nel, ed. Educating Citizens for Global Awareness. New York: Teachers College Press. 2005.
- Held, Virginia. Feminist Morality: Transforming Culture, Society, and Politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1993.