Ethnic Chinese in Korea
Encyclopedia
There has been a recognisable community of Chinese people in Korea since the 1880s. Most early migrants came from Shandong
province on the east coast of China
; many of them and their descendants have emigrated. However, the reform and opening up of the People's Republic of China
(PRC) and the normalisation of People's Republic of China – South Korea relations has resulted in a new wave of Chinese migration to South Korea. More than half of the South Korea's 1.1 million foreign residents are PRC citizens; 71% of those are Joseonjok, PRC citizens of Korean ethnicity. There is also a small community of PRC citizens in North Korea.
. However, there was little recognisable community until July 1882, when the Qing Dynasty
sent Admiral Wu Changqing (吳長慶) and 3,000 troops at the request of the Korean government to aid in quelling a rebellion
. Accompanying the troops were some 40 Chinese merchants and other civilians. In August that same year, Qing Superindendent for Trade for the Northern Ports Li Hongzhang
lifted restrictions on coastal trade and signed the Regulations for Maritime and Overland Trade Between Chinese and Korean Subjects, and two further agreements the following year, which granted Chinese merchants permission to trade in Korea.
Unlike in other Asian countries, 90% of the early overseas Chinese in Korea came from Shandong
, rather than the southern coastal provinces of Guangdong
and Fujian
. During the late 19th and early 20th century Shandong was hard hit by famine, drought, and banditry especially in its northwest, and caused many to migrate to other parts of Shandong, China, and Korea. Chinese merchants did well in competition with the Japanese due to their superior access to credit. They were not confined to port cities, and many did business in inland parts of Korea. Generally speaking, Japanese traders were more interested in quick profits, while the Chinese established relationships with customers. The earliest Chinese school in Korea, the Joseon Hwagyo Primary School, was established in 1902 in Incheon
.
, the number of Chinese in Korea had risen to 12,000. Chinese migrants established schools in Seoul
in 1910, Busan
in 1912, Sinuiju
in 1915, Nampho in 1919, and Wonsan
in 1923.
The number of Chinese in Korea would expand to 82,661 by 1942, but contracted sharply to 12,648 by 1945 due to economic hardships faced during World War II
.
, many Chinese residing in the northern half of the Korean peninsula migrated to the southern half. After the division of Korea
, the Chinese population in South Korea would remain stable for some time; however, when Park Chung Hee took power in a coup on May 16, 1961, he began to implement currency reforms and property restrictions which severely harmed the interests of the Chinese community, spurring an exodus. Incheon
once had the largest Chinese population in Korea, but as the pace of emigration increased, the number diminished. It is estimated that only 26,700 of the old Chinese community now remain in South Korea; they largely hold Republic of China nationality
.
However, in recent years, immigration from mainland China has increased; 696,861 persons of PRC nationality
have immigrated to South Korea, making them 55.1% of the total 1,139,283 foreign citizens living in South Korea. Among them are 488,100 of Korean descent (70% of PRC citizens in South Korea, and 40% of the total number of foreign citizens), and 208,761 of other ethnicities. Most of these new residents live in Seoul
and its surroundings.
There is a Chinese-language primary school in Myeongdong
, as well as a high school in Seodaemun.
published a figure of 4,000 overseas Chinese and 100 international student
s in 2008. The Chosun Ilbo, a South Korean newspaper, gave a higher estimate of 10,000 people in 2009. They live mostly in Pyongyang
and in the areas near the Chinese border.
After the surrender of Japan
and the liberation of Korea from Japanese rule, Chinese living in the northern half of Korea quickly established new schools and rebuilt Chinese-language education, with aid from the Communist Party of China
(CPC). In April 1949, the CPC's Northeast Administrative Committee formally handed control of these schools over to the North Korean government, which began some efforts to integrate them into the national educational system. Early financial assistance from the North Korean government actually helped to maintain and expand Chinese education; the schools continued operation even during the Korean War, and the era after the cessation of hostilities up to around 1966 was described as a "golden era" for the schools. After that time, the North Korean government began to pursue a policy of reform and indigenisation towards the schools. However, as of the late 1990s, there were still four Chinese middle schools which followed the PRC curriculum. Some of their graduates go on to PRC universities; for example, Jinan University
in Guangzhou
had over 100 overseas Chinese students from North Korea . Yanbian University
in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture
of China also began offering training programmes for teachers
in overseas Chinese schools in North Korea beginning in 2002; 38 students from their first class graduated in 2005.
Being foreign citizens, North Korea's Chinese people were not eligible to join the ruling Korean Workers Party or advance in the military or the civil bureaucracy. On the other hand, they were allowed somewhat greater freedoms, such as the right to own a radio that was not sealed to only allow being tuned to North Korean stations (as long they did not listen to foreign stations in presence of Koreans). More importantly, since around 1980 they were allowed to travel abroad, and participate in the important and profitable export-import business. After the PRC government came out in support of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1874
in June 2009, which imposed sanctions in North Korea, it was reported that North Korean surveillance and repression of Chinese residents had increased, and many had chosen to avoid making trips out of the country to avoid scrutiny. One Chinese resident was allegedly charged with espionage.
, and another 10,000 to Taiwan. Further outmigration occurred during the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis. Others went to the PRC after its reform and opening up, to pursue commercial opportunities or simply to return to their ancestral hometowns. For example, in Rizhao
, Shandong alone, there are 8,200 returned overseas Chinese.
Many Chinese from Korea who migrated to the U.S. have settled in areas with large Korean American
communities, such as Los Angeles
, and they have tended to integrate into the Korean American
rather than Chinese American
community. Yet, some who went to the United States or Taiwan found they could not adapt to life there either due to linguistic and cultural barriers, and ended up returning to South Korea, in a form of circular migration
.
Shandong
' is a Province located on the eastern coast of the People's Republic of China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history from the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River and served as a pivotal cultural and religious site for Taoism, Chinese...
province on the east coast of China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
; many of them and their descendants have emigrated. However, the reform and opening up of the People's Republic of China
People's Republic of China
China , officially the People's Republic of China , is the most populous country in the world, with over 1.3 billion citizens. Located in East Asia, the country covers approximately 9.6 million square kilometres...
(PRC) and the normalisation of People's Republic of China – South Korea relations has resulted in a new wave of Chinese migration to South Korea. More than half of the South Korea's 1.1 million foreign residents are PRC citizens; 71% of those are Joseonjok, PRC citizens of Korean ethnicity. There is also a small community of PRC citizens in North Korea.
Terminology
When writing in English, scholars use a number of different terms to refer to Chinese people in Korea, often derived from Sino-Korean vocabulary. One common one is yeohan hwagyo (Korean) or lühan huaqiao (Mandarin), meaning "Chinese staying in Korea". The Korean reading is often shortened to hwagyo (also spelled huakyo), which simply means "overseas Chinese" but in English literature typically refers specifically to the overseas Chinese of Korea. Other authors call them huaqiao, but this term might be used to refer to overseas Chinese in any country, not just Korea, so sometimes a qualifier is added, for example "Korean-Huaqiao". The terms "Chinese Korean" and "Korean Chinese" are also seen. However, this usage may be confused with Koreans in China, who are also referred to by both such names.Early history
Individual Chinese are recorded on the Korean peninsula as early as the 13th century, with some going on to found Korean clansBon-gwan
Bon-gwan is the concept of clan in Korea, which is used to distinguish clans that happen to share a same family name . Since Korea has been traditionally a Buddhist country this clan system is cognate with Gotra in Sanskrit texts and shares most features...
. However, there was little recognisable community until July 1882, when the Qing Dynasty
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
sent Admiral Wu Changqing (吳長慶) and 3,000 troops at the request of the Korean government to aid in quelling a rebellion
Imo Incident
The Imo Incident, also known as Imo mutiny, was a military revolt of some units of the Korean military in Incheon on July 23, 1882.-Background:A variety of causes for this brief disturbance have been put forward...
. Accompanying the troops were some 40 Chinese merchants and other civilians. In August that same year, Qing Superindendent for Trade for the Northern Ports Li Hongzhang
Li Hongzhang
Li Hongzhang or Li Hung-chang , Marquis Suyi of the First Class , GCVO, was a leading statesman of the late Qing Empire...
lifted restrictions on coastal trade and signed the Regulations for Maritime and Overland Trade Between Chinese and Korean Subjects, and two further agreements the following year, which granted Chinese merchants permission to trade in Korea.
Unlike in other Asian countries, 90% of the early overseas Chinese in Korea came from Shandong
Shandong
' is a Province located on the eastern coast of the People's Republic of China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history from the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River and served as a pivotal cultural and religious site for Taoism, Chinese...
, rather than the southern coastal provinces of Guangdong
Guangdong
Guangdong is a province on the South China Sea coast of the People's Republic of China. The province was previously often written with the alternative English name Kwangtung Province...
and Fujian
Fujian
' , formerly romanised as Fukien or Huguing or Foukien, is a province on the southeast coast of mainland China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, and Guangdong to the south. Taiwan lies to the east, across the Taiwan Strait...
. During the late 19th and early 20th century Shandong was hard hit by famine, drought, and banditry especially in its northwest, and caused many to migrate to other parts of Shandong, China, and Korea. Chinese merchants did well in competition with the Japanese due to their superior access to credit. They were not confined to port cities, and many did business in inland parts of Korea. Generally speaking, Japanese traders were more interested in quick profits, while the Chinese established relationships with customers. The earliest Chinese school in Korea, the Joseon Hwagyo Primary School, was established in 1902 in Incheon
Incheon
The Incheon Metropolitan City is located in northwestern South Korea. The city was home to just 4,700 people when Jemulpo port was built in 1883. Today 2.76 million people live in the city, making it Korea’s third most populous city after Seoul and Busan Metropolitan City...
.
Under Japanese rule
By 1910, when Korea formally came under Japanese ruleKorea under Japanese rule
Korea was under Japanese rule as part of Japan's 35-year imperialist expansion . Japanese rule ended in 1945 shortly after the Japanese defeat in World War II....
, the number of Chinese in Korea had risen to 12,000. Chinese migrants established schools in Seoul
Seoul
Seoul , officially the Seoul Special City, is the capital and largest metropolis of South Korea. A megacity with a population of over 10 million, it is the largest city proper in the OECD developed world...
in 1910, Busan
Busan
Busan , formerly spelled Pusan is South Korea's second largest metropolis after Seoul, with a population of around 3.6 million. The Metropolitan area population is 4,399,515 as of 2010. It is the largest port city in South Korea and the fifth largest port in the world...
in 1912, Sinuiju
Sinuiju
Sinŭiju is a city in North Korea, neighboring with Dandong City, China via international border and is the capital of North P'yŏngan Province...
in 1915, Nampho in 1919, and Wonsan
Wonsan
Wŏnsan is a port city and naval base in southeastern North Korea. It is the capital of Kangwŏn Province. The population of the city is estimated to have been 331,000 in 2000. Notable people from Wŏnsan include Kim Ki Nam, diplomat and Secretary of the Workers' Party.- History :The original name of...
in 1923.
The number of Chinese in Korea would expand to 82,661 by 1942, but contracted sharply to 12,648 by 1945 due to economic hardships faced during World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
.
South Korea
Prior to and during the Korean WarKorean War
The Korean War was a conventional war between South Korea, supported by the United Nations, and North Korea, supported by the People's Republic of China , with military material aid from the Soviet Union...
, many Chinese residing in the northern half of the Korean peninsula migrated to the southern half. After the division of Korea
Division of Korea
The division of Korea into North Korea and South Korea stems from the 1945 Allied victory in World War II, ending Japan's 35-year colonial rule of Korea. In a proposal opposed by nearly all Koreans, the United States and the Soviet Union agreed to temporarily occupy the country as a trusteeship...
, the Chinese population in South Korea would remain stable for some time; however, when Park Chung Hee took power in a coup on May 16, 1961, he began to implement currency reforms and property restrictions which severely harmed the interests of the Chinese community, spurring an exodus. Incheon
Incheon
The Incheon Metropolitan City is located in northwestern South Korea. The city was home to just 4,700 people when Jemulpo port was built in 1883. Today 2.76 million people live in the city, making it Korea’s third most populous city after Seoul and Busan Metropolitan City...
once had the largest Chinese population in Korea, but as the pace of emigration increased, the number diminished. It is estimated that only 26,700 of the old Chinese community now remain in South Korea; they largely hold Republic of China nationality
Nationality Law of the Republic of China
The Nationality Law of the Republic of China defines and regulates nationality of the Republic of China . It was first promulgated by the Nationalist Government on February 5, 1929 and revised by the Taipei-based Legislative Yuan in 2000, 2001, and 2006.The Act, like the Constitution of the...
.
However, in recent years, immigration from mainland China has increased; 696,861 persons of PRC nationality
Nationality Law of the People's Republic of China
The Nationality Law of the People's Republic of China regulates citizenship in the People's Republic of China . Such citizenship is obtained by birth when at least one parent is of Chinese nationality or by naturalization....
have immigrated to South Korea, making them 55.1% of the total 1,139,283 foreign citizens living in South Korea. Among them are 488,100 of Korean descent (70% of PRC citizens in South Korea, and 40% of the total number of foreign citizens), and 208,761 of other ethnicities. Most of these new residents live in Seoul
Seoul
Seoul , officially the Seoul Special City, is the capital and largest metropolis of South Korea. A megacity with a population of over 10 million, it is the largest city proper in the OECD developed world...
and its surroundings.
There is a Chinese-language primary school in Myeongdong
Myeongdong
Myeong-dong or Myong-dong is a dong in Jung-gu, Seoul, South Korea between Chungmu-ro, Eulji-ro, and Namdaemun-ro. It covers 0.99 km² with a population of 3,529 and is mostly a commercial area, being one of Seoul's main shopping and tourism districts.-History:Myeongdong dates back to the...
, as well as a high school in Seodaemun.
North Korea
The population of PRC citizens in North Korea was estimated as 14,351 persons (in 3,778 households) in 1958, shrinking to merely 6,000 by 1980, as they had been encouraged by the North Korean government to leave for China in the 1960s and 70s. Recent estimates of their population vary. China's official Xinhua News AgencyXinhua News Agency
The Xinhua News Agency is the official press agency of the government of the People's Republic of China and the biggest center for collecting information and press conferences in the PRC. It is the largest news agency in the PRC, ahead of the China News Service...
published a figure of 4,000 overseas Chinese and 100 international student
International student
According to Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development , international students are those who travel to a country different from their own for the purpose of tertiary study. Despite that, the definition of international students varies in each country in accordance to their own national...
s in 2008. The Chosun Ilbo, a South Korean newspaper, gave a higher estimate of 10,000 people in 2009. They live mostly in Pyongyang
Pyongyang
Pyongyang is the capital of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, commonly known as North Korea, and the largest city in the country. Pyongyang is located on the Taedong River and, according to preliminary results from the 2008 population census, has a population of 3,255,388. The city was...
and in the areas near the Chinese border.
After the surrender of Japan
Surrender of Japan
The surrender of Japan in 1945 brought hostilities of World War II to a close. By the end of July 1945, the Imperial Japanese Navy was incapable of conducting operations and an Allied invasion of Japan was imminent...
and the liberation of Korea from Japanese rule, Chinese living in the northern half of Korea quickly established new schools and rebuilt Chinese-language education, with aid from the Communist Party of China
Communist Party of China
The Communist Party of China , also known as the Chinese Communist Party , is the founding and ruling political party of the People's Republic of China...
(CPC). In April 1949, the CPC's Northeast Administrative Committee formally handed control of these schools over to the North Korean government, which began some efforts to integrate them into the national educational system. Early financial assistance from the North Korean government actually helped to maintain and expand Chinese education; the schools continued operation even during the Korean War, and the era after the cessation of hostilities up to around 1966 was described as a "golden era" for the schools. After that time, the North Korean government began to pursue a policy of reform and indigenisation towards the schools. However, as of the late 1990s, there were still four Chinese middle schools which followed the PRC curriculum. Some of their graduates go on to PRC universities; for example, Jinan University
Jinan University
Jinan University is a public research and comprehensive university based in Guangzhou, Guangdong province, China. It is one of the oldest universities established on mainland China tracing back to the Qing Empire...
in Guangzhou
Guangzhou
Guangzhou , known historically as Canton or Kwangchow, is the capital and largest city of the Guangdong province in the People's Republic of China. Located in southern China on the Pearl River, about north-northwest of Hong Kong, Guangzhou is a key national transportation hub and trading port...
had over 100 overseas Chinese students from North Korea . Yanbian University
Yanbian University
Yanbian University is one of the key universities of the People's Republic of China, located at Yanji, Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture, Jilin Province.-History:...
in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture
Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture
Yanbian is a Korean Autonomous Prefecture in Jilin Province, in Northeastern China, above the border with North Korea. Yanbian is bordered to the north by Heilongjiang, on the west by Baishan City and Jilin City, on the south by North Hamgyong Province of North Korea, and on the east by Primorsky...
of China also began offering training programmes for teachers
Teacher education
Teacher education refers to the policies and procedures designed to equip prospective teachers with the knowledge, attitudes, behaviors and skills they require to perform their tasks effectively in the classroom, school and wider community....
in overseas Chinese schools in North Korea beginning in 2002; 38 students from their first class graduated in 2005.
Being foreign citizens, North Korea's Chinese people were not eligible to join the ruling Korean Workers Party or advance in the military or the civil bureaucracy. On the other hand, they were allowed somewhat greater freedoms, such as the right to own a radio that was not sealed to only allow being tuned to North Korean stations (as long they did not listen to foreign stations in presence of Koreans). More importantly, since around 1980 they were allowed to travel abroad, and participate in the important and profitable export-import business. After the PRC government came out in support of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1874
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1874
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1874 was adopted unanimously by the United Nations Security Council on 12 June 2009. The resolution, passed under Chapter VII, Article 41, of the UN Charter, imposes further economic and commercial sanctions on the Democratic People's Republic of Korea ...
in June 2009, which imposed sanctions in North Korea, it was reported that North Korean surveillance and repression of Chinese residents had increased, and many had chosen to avoid making trips out of the country to avoid scrutiny. One Chinese resident was allegedly charged with espionage.
Secondary migration
Due to the South Korean regulations in the 1960s which limited foreign property ownership, many Chinese in South Korea left the country. During the 1970s, 15,000 are estimated to have moved to the United StatesUnited States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
, and another 10,000 to Taiwan. Further outmigration occurred during the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis. Others went to the PRC after its reform and opening up, to pursue commercial opportunities or simply to return to their ancestral hometowns. For example, in Rizhao
Rizhao
Rizhao is a prefecture-level city in southeastern Shandong province, People's Republic of China. It is situated on the coastline along the Yellow Sea, borders Qingdao to the northeast, Weifang to the north, Linyi to the west and southwest, and faces Korea and Japan across the Yellow Sea to the east...
, Shandong alone, there are 8,200 returned overseas Chinese.
Many Chinese from Korea who migrated to the U.S. have settled in areas with large Korean American
Korean American
Korean Americans are Americans of Korean descent, mostly from South Korea, with a small minority from North Korea...
communities, such as Los Angeles
Los Ángeles
Los Ángeles is the capital of the province of Biobío, in the commune of the same name, in Region VIII , in the center-south of Chile. It is located between the Laja and Biobío rivers. The population is 123,445 inhabitants...
, and they have tended to integrate into the Korean American
Korean American
Korean Americans are Americans of Korean descent, mostly from South Korea, with a small minority from North Korea...
rather than Chinese American
Chinese American
Chinese Americans represent Americans of Chinese descent. Chinese Americans constitute one group of overseas Chinese and also a subgroup of East Asian Americans, which is further a subgroup of Asian Americans...
community. Yet, some who went to the United States or Taiwan found they could not adapt to life there either due to linguistic and cultural barriers, and ended up returning to South Korea, in a form of circular migration
Circular migration
Circular migration in a global context is used as a triple win discourse promising gains for host countries, home countries and migrants themselves, promising accelerated economic growth, remittances, relative high wages and brain gain, by means of full circles of migration: immigrants should be...
.
Notable people
- Amber LiuAmber Liu (singer)Amber Josephine Liu , better known mononymously as Amber, is a singer active in South Korea that holds dual citizenship in South Korea and The United States. She is of Taiwanese descent. Her parents are from Tainan City,Taiwan. She is a member of SM Entertainment's quintet pop girl group f...
, member of girl group F(x)F(x) (band)f is a five member South Korean girl group formed by SM Entertainment in 2009. The name is a play on the mathematical notation for function, and when input with different 'x', there can be many different outcomes. f strives to be the kind of girl group that can change and adapt to many situations.... - Ha Hee-raHa Hee-raHa Hee-ra is a South Korean actress. Her father is a native and immigrant of China, while her mother is full Korean. Ha started her career as a child actor when she was in the sixth grade, and has appeared mainly in films for teenagers. She became a representative actress of the 1990s, along with...
, actress, spouse of actor Choi Soo JongChoi Soo JongChoi Soo Jong is a South Korean actor. Choi made his debut in 1987 as a young actor in the TV soap opera ‘Love Tree’. He has appeared in movies, television and as an MC on various award shows. He has received worldwide recognition for his leading roles in several highly successful shows... - Han Geng, former member of the boy band Super JuniorSuper JuniorSuper Junior is a South Korean boy band. Formed in 2005 by producer Lee Soo-man of SM Entertainment, the group comprised a total of thirteen members at its peak, and was once claimed to be the world's largest boy band...
- Hu In-jeong, volleyball player
- Ju Hyun-miJu Hyun-miJoo Hyun-Mi is a Korean trot singer born to hwagyo parents who lived in Gwangju, South Korea...
, Korean trot singer - Meng JiaMiss AMiss A , commonly stylized as miss A, is a four member South Korean girl group formed by JYP Entertainment through their sub-label AQ Entertainment in 2010. The group consists of members from both China and South Korea...
, member of girl group Miss AMiss AMiss A , commonly stylized as miss A, is a four member South Korean girl group formed by JYP Entertainment through their sub-label AQ Entertainment in 2010. The group consists of members from both China and South Korea... - So So-kyeong, former baseball player for the Kia TigersKia TigersKia Tigers Professional Baseball Club is a Korean professional baseball team founded in 1982. The Tigers are a member team of the Korean Baseball Organization and the most successful team in Korean baseball having won the national championship, the Korean Series, ten times, with a perfect 10-0...
- Victoria SongVictoria SongSong Qian , better known as Victoria Song or mononymously as Victoria was born February 2, 1987, is a Chinese singer, dancer and model, leader of the 5 member South Korean girl group f....
, leader of girl group F(x)F(x) (band)f is a five member South Korean girl group formed by SM Entertainment in 2009. The name is a play on the mathematical notation for function, and when input with different 'x', there can be many different outcomes. f strives to be the kind of girl group that can change and adapt to many situations.... - Wang Fei FeiMiss AMiss A , commonly stylized as miss A, is a four member South Korean girl group formed by JYP Entertainment through their sub-label AQ Entertainment in 2010. The group consists of members from both China and South Korea...
, member of girl group Miss AMiss AMiss A , commonly stylized as miss A, is a four member South Korean girl group formed by JYP Entertainment through their sub-label AQ Entertainment in 2010. The group consists of members from both China and South Korea... - Zhang Liyin, pop singer with SM EntertainmentSM EntertainmentS.M. Entertainment is an independent Korean record label, talent agency, producer, and publisher of pop music, founded by Lee Soo-man in South Korea...
Sources
|pages=463–484|title=The last half century of Chinese overseas|editor-first=Elizabeth|editor-last=Sinn|publisher=Hong Kong University Press|year=1998|isbn=9789622094468}}|year=2001|volume=1|number=4|issn=1002-5162|journal=Overseas Chinese History Studies|url=http://www.ilib.cn/A-ISSN~1002-5162%282001%2904-0058-10.html|author=慕德政 [Mu Dezheng]|ref=CITEREFMu2001}}|author=慕德政 [Mu Dezheng]|issn=1009-3311|year=2003|volume=36|number=2|journal=Social Sciences Journal of Yanbian University|url=http://www.ilib.cn/A-ISSN~1009-3311%282003%2902-0025-04.html|ref=CITEREFMu2003}}|journal=|pages=107–129|url=http://www.k-modernchina.com/jour/35/35-05.pdf|issn=1598-8287}}Further reading
|publication-place=Seoul|publisher=Samseong Gyeongje Yeonguso|year=2004|isbn=9788976332424|oclc=58047117}}-
- Also published in Chinese as |author=陆益龙|publication-place=Beijing|publisher=China Social Sciences Press|year=2006|isbn=9787500459217|oclc=173283674}}|series=구술사료선집 [Materials of Oral History Series]|publisher=National Institute of Korean History|publication-place=Gwancheon, Gyeonggi-do|year=2007|isbn=9788982363900|oclc=262402436}}