Ethnolichenology
Encyclopedia
Ethnolichenology is the study of the relationship between lichens and people. Lichens have and are being used for many different purposes by human cultures on every continent, with the possible exception of Australia. The most common human use of lichens is for dye, but they are also frequently used for medicine and food. Different human cultures across the world have also found many other more novel uses for lichens.
s. The lichen dye is usually extracted by either boiling water or ammonia fermentation. Although usually called ammonia fermentation, this method is not actually a fermentation
and involves letting the lichen steep in ammonia
(traditionally urine
) for at least two to three weeks.
In North America
the most significant lichen dye is Letharia vulpina
. Indigenous people through most of this lichen's range in North America traditionally make a yellow dye from this lichen by boiling it in water.
Historically, traditional dyes in Scotland
were very important. Brown lichen dyes (called crottle) and red lichen dyes (called corkir) were used extensively to produce tartan
s.
Purple dyes from lichens were historically very important throughout Europe from the 15th to 17th centuries. They were generally extracted from Roccella spp. lichens imported from the Canary Islands
, Cape Verde Islands, Madagascar
, or India
. These lichens, and the dye extracted from them, are called orchil (variants archil, orchilla). The same dye was also produced from Ochrolechia
spp. lichens in Britain and was called cudbear. Both Roccella spp. and Ochrolechia
spp. contain the lichen substance orcin, which converts into the purple dye orcein
in the ammonia fermentation process.
Litmus
, a water soluble pH indicator dye mixture is also extracted from Roccella species.
One of the most potent lichen antibiotics is usnic acid
, as a result Usnea spp.
are commonly used in traditional medicines. Usnea was used in the United States as a fungal remedy of the mouth, stomach, intestines, anus, vagina, nose, ear, and skin, and in Finland it was used to treat wounds, skin eruptions, and athlete’s foot. In Russia a preparation of the sodium salt of usnic acid was sold under the name Binan for the treatment of varicose and trophic ulcers, second and their degree burns, and for plastic surgery.
Other lichens commonly featured in folk medicines include Iceland moss
and Lungwort
.
Only a few lichens are truly poisonous, with species of Letharia
and Vulpicida
being the primary examples. These lichens are yellow because they have high concentrations of the bright yellow toxin vulpinic acid
.
Wolf lichen
(Letharia vulpicida) was used in Scandinavia
to poison wolves. The process begins by adding the lichens to various baits such as reindeer blood and other meats, while sometimes mixing the concoction with ground glass or strychnine
. Wolves that ate the concoction were reported to succumb in less than 24 hours. The Achomawi
people of northern California use Letharia to poison arrowheads. The arrowheads would be soaked in the lichens for a year sometimes with the addition of rattlesnake venom
. Although toxic, wolf lichens were used to treat sores and inflammation by indigenous people in north California and southern British Columbia, and even taken internally as medicine.
There are records of lichens being used as food by many different human cultures across the world. Lichens are eaten by people in North America, Europe, Asia, and Africa, and perhaps elsewhere. Often lichens are merely famine food
s eaten in times of dire needs, but in some cultures lichens are a staple food or even a delicacy. Two problems often encountered with eating lichens is that they usually contain mildly toxic secondary compounds, and that lichen polysaccharides
are generally indigestible to humans. Many human cultures have discovered preparation techniques to overcome these problems. Lichens are often thoroughly washed, boiled, or soaked in ash water to help remove secondary compounds.
In the past Iceland moss
(Cetraria islandica) was an important human food in northern Europe and Scandinavia, and was cooked in many different ways, such as bread, porridge, pudding, soup, or salad. Wila (Bryoria fremontii) was an important food in parts of North America, where it was usually pitcooked. It is even featured in a Secwepemc story
. Reindeer lichen
(Cladina spp.) is a staple food of reindeer and caribou in the Arctic. Northern peoples in North America and Siberia traditionally eat the partially digested lichen after they remove it from the rumen
of caribou that have been killed. It is often called 'stomach icecream'. Rock tripe
(Umbilicaria spp. and Lasalia spp.) is a lichen that has frequently been used as an emergency food in North America. One species of Umbilicaria, Iwa-take
(U. esculenta), is used in a variety of traditional Korean and Japanese foods. It is quite expensive, and is collected off the sides of cliffs. In India, and other centers of curry powder production, garam masala
sauce contains certain lichens used as bulking agents.
Very few lichens are poisonous. Poisonous lichens include those high in vulpinic acid
or usnic acid
. Most (but not all) lichens that contain vulpinic acid are yellow, so any yellow lichen should be considered to be potentially poisonous.
began in Egypt about 5,000 years ago, and the use of lichens in embalming can be seen dating back to the 18th Dynasty where Pseudevernia furfuracea
was found in an Egyptian vase. The process of using lichens in embalming is a fascinating discovery. For starters, to embalm a body, a slit was made in the abdomen and the organs and viscera were removed. The organs and viscera were wrapped in separate linen packets and replaced in the body or put in canopic jars between the legs. The body cavity was then packed with lichen, sawdust, bruised myrrh, cassia, and every other spices. Pseudevernia furfuracea was employed due to its preservative
and aromatic qualities. Also it was used simply as a highly absorbent, light-weight packaging material. It also contains antibiotic substances. These qualities helped inhibit bacterial decay of the mummies. Another discovery is that the Egyptians would grind and mix Pseudevernia furfuracea with their flour for bread. The bread was then placed with the mummy and thought to be the first meal for the mummy in its afterlife. Pseudevernia furfuracea was imported shiploads from the Grecian archipelago to Alexandria. Whether Pseudevernia furfuracea, was used for embalming, medicinal purposes, or as an ingredient in bread, it has its place in history as an important plant connecting a culture to its environment. Today, embalming fluids are colored from the lichen dye orchil into a product called Cudbear, illustrating how a historical procedure can influence future practices.
Lichens for dye
Lichens are a common source of natural dyeNatural dye
Natural dyes are dyes or colorants derived from plants, invertebrates, or minerals. The majority of natural dyes are vegetable dyes from plant sources – roots, berries, bark, leaves, and wood — and other organic sources such as fungi and lichens....
s. The lichen dye is usually extracted by either boiling water or ammonia fermentation. Although usually called ammonia fermentation, this method is not actually a fermentation
Fermentation (biochemistry)
Fermentation is the process of extracting energy from the oxidation of organic compounds, such as carbohydrates, using an endogenous electron acceptor, which is usually an organic compound. In contrast, respiration is where electrons are donated to an exogenous electron acceptor, such as oxygen,...
and involves letting the lichen steep in ammonia
Ammonia
Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula . It is a colourless gas with a characteristic pungent odour. Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to food and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or...
(traditionally urine
Urine
Urine is a typically sterile liquid by-product of the body that is secreted by the kidneys through a process called urination and excreted through the urethra. Cellular metabolism generates numerous by-products, many rich in nitrogen, that require elimination from the bloodstream...
) for at least two to three weeks.
In North America
North America
North America is a continent wholly within the Northern Hemisphere and almost wholly within the Western Hemisphere. It is also considered a northern subcontinent of the Americas...
the most significant lichen dye is Letharia vulpina
Letharia vulpina
Letharia vulpina, commonly known as the wolf lichen, is a fruticose lichenized species of fungus in the family Parmeliaceae. It is bright yellow-green, shrubby and highly branched, and grows on the bark of living and dead conifers in parts of western and continental Europe, the Pacific Northwest...
. Indigenous people through most of this lichen's range in North America traditionally make a yellow dye from this lichen by boiling it in water.
Historically, traditional dyes in Scotland
Traditional dyes of the Scottish Highlands
Traditional dyes of the Scottish Highlands are thenative vegetable dyes used in Scottish Gaeldom.The following are the principal dyestuffs with the colours they produce. Several of the tints are very bright, but have now been superseded by various mineral dyes. The Latin names are given where known...
were very important. Brown lichen dyes (called crottle) and red lichen dyes (called corkir) were used extensively to produce tartan
Tartan
Tartan is a pattern consisting of criss-crossed horizontal and vertical bands in multiple colours. Tartans originated in woven wool, but now they are made in many other materials. Tartan is particularly associated with Scotland. Scottish kilts almost always have tartan patterns...
s.
Purple dyes from lichens were historically very important throughout Europe from the 15th to 17th centuries. They were generally extracted from Roccella spp. lichens imported from the Canary Islands
Canary Islands
The Canary Islands , also known as the Canaries , is a Spanish archipelago located just off the northwest coast of mainland Africa, 100 km west of the border between Morocco and the Western Sahara. The Canaries are a Spanish autonomous community and an outermost region of the European Union...
, Cape Verde Islands, Madagascar
Madagascar
The Republic of Madagascar is an island country located in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern coast of Africa...
, or India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
. These lichens, and the dye extracted from them, are called orchil (variants archil, orchilla). The same dye was also produced from Ochrolechia
Ochrolechia
Ochrolechia is a genus of lichen belonging to the suborder Lecanorineae.-External links:*...
spp. lichens in Britain and was called cudbear. Both Roccella spp. and Ochrolechia
Ochrolechia
Ochrolechia is a genus of lichen belonging to the suborder Lecanorineae.-External links:*...
spp. contain the lichen substance orcin, which converts into the purple dye orcein
Orcein
Orcein, also archil, orchil, lacmus, Citrus Red 2, and C.I. Natural Red 28, are names for dyes extracted from several species of lichen, commonly known as "orchella weeds", found in various parts of the world. A major source is the archil lichen, Roccella tinctoria. Orcinol is extracted from such...
in the ammonia fermentation process.
Litmus
Litmus
Litmus or litmus test may refer to:* Litmus test, a common pH test* Litmus , a test case management tool maintained by Mozilla* "Litmus" , an episode in the first season of the television series...
, a water soluble pH indicator dye mixture is also extracted from Roccella species.
Lichens for medicine
Many lichens have been used medicinally across the world. A lichen's usefulness as a medicine is often related to the lichen secondary compounds that are abundant in most lichen thalli. Different lichens produce a wide variety of these compounds, most of which are unique to lichens and many of which are antibiotic. It has been estimated that 50% of all lichen species have antibiotic properties. Many lichen extracts have been found to be effective in killing Gram-positive bacteria, which included species that cause boils, scarlet fever, and pneumoniaOne of the most potent lichen antibiotics is usnic acid
Usnic acid
Usnic acid is a naturally occurring dibenzofuran derivative found in several lichen species. It was first isolated by German scientist W. Knop in 1844 and first synthesized between 1933-1937 by Curd and Robertson. Usnic acid was identified in many genera of lichens including Usnea, Cladonia,...
, as a result Usnea spp.
Usnea
Usnea is the generic and scientific name for several species of lichen in the family Parmeliaceae, that generally grow hanging from tree branches, resembling grey or greenish hair. It is sometimes referred to commonly as Old Man's Beard, Beard Lichen, or Treemoss...
are commonly used in traditional medicines. Usnea was used in the United States as a fungal remedy of the mouth, stomach, intestines, anus, vagina, nose, ear, and skin, and in Finland it was used to treat wounds, skin eruptions, and athlete’s foot. In Russia a preparation of the sodium salt of usnic acid was sold under the name Binan for the treatment of varicose and trophic ulcers, second and their degree burns, and for plastic surgery.
Other lichens commonly featured in folk medicines include Iceland moss
Iceland moss
Iceland moss is a lichen whose erect or ascending foliaceous habit gives it something of the appearance of a moss, whence probably the name...
and Lungwort
Lobaria
Lobaria is a genus of lichens commonly known as "lungwort" or "lung moss" as their physical shape somewhat resembles a lung. Lobaria species are unusual in that they have a three-part symbiosis, containing a fungus, an alga and a cyanobacterium, the presence of the cyanobacterium allowing nitrogen...
.
Lichens for poisons
Letharia vulpina
Letharia vulpina, commonly known as the wolf lichen, is a fruticose lichenized species of fungus in the family Parmeliaceae. It is bright yellow-green, shrubby and highly branched, and grows on the bark of living and dead conifers in parts of western and continental Europe, the Pacific Northwest...
and Vulpicida
Vulpicida
Vulpicida is a genus of lichenized fungi within the Parmeliaceae family. The genus is widespread in Arctic to northern temperate regions, and contains six species....
being the primary examples. These lichens are yellow because they have high concentrations of the bright yellow toxin vulpinic acid
Vulpinic acid
Vulpinic acid is a naturally occurring pulvinic acid derivative found in several lichen species, as well as some non-lichenized fungi. It was first isolated in 1925. It is bright yellow, and relatively toxic.-Occurrence in Lichen:...
.
Wolf lichen
Letharia vulpina
Letharia vulpina, commonly known as the wolf lichen, is a fruticose lichenized species of fungus in the family Parmeliaceae. It is bright yellow-green, shrubby and highly branched, and grows on the bark of living and dead conifers in parts of western and continental Europe, the Pacific Northwest...
(Letharia vulpicida) was used in Scandinavia
Scandinavia
Scandinavia is a cultural, historical and ethno-linguistic region in northern Europe that includes the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, characterized by their common ethno-cultural heritage and language. Modern Norway and Sweden proper are situated on the Scandinavian Peninsula,...
to poison wolves. The process begins by adding the lichens to various baits such as reindeer blood and other meats, while sometimes mixing the concoction with ground glass or strychnine
Strychnine
Strychnine is a highly toxic , colorless crystalline alkaloid used as a pesticide, particularly for killing small vertebrates such as birds and rodents. Strychnine causes muscular convulsions and eventually death through asphyxia or sheer exhaustion...
. Wolves that ate the concoction were reported to succumb in less than 24 hours. The Achomawi
Achomawi
The Achomawi are one of eleven bands of the Pit River tribe of Native Americans who lived in northeastern California, USA....
people of northern California use Letharia to poison arrowheads. The arrowheads would be soaked in the lichens for a year sometimes with the addition of rattlesnake venom
Snake venom
Snake venom is highly modified saliva that is produced by special glands of certain species of snakes. The glands which secrete the zootoxin are a modification of the parotid salivary gland of other vertebrates, and are usually situated on each side of the head below and behind the eye,...
. Although toxic, wolf lichens were used to treat sores and inflammation by indigenous people in north California and southern British Columbia, and even taken internally as medicine.
Lichens for food
Famine food
A famine food or poverty food is any inexpensive or readily-available foodstuff used to nourish people in times of extreme poverty or starvation, as during a war or famine...
s eaten in times of dire needs, but in some cultures lichens are a staple food or even a delicacy. Two problems often encountered with eating lichens is that they usually contain mildly toxic secondary compounds, and that lichen polysaccharides
Lichenin
Lichenin, also known as lichenan or moss starch, is a complex glucan occurring in certain species of lichens. It can be extracted from Cetraria islandica . It has been studied since about 1957...
are generally indigestible to humans. Many human cultures have discovered preparation techniques to overcome these problems. Lichens are often thoroughly washed, boiled, or soaked in ash water to help remove secondary compounds.
In the past Iceland moss
Iceland moss
Iceland moss is a lichen whose erect or ascending foliaceous habit gives it something of the appearance of a moss, whence probably the name...
(Cetraria islandica) was an important human food in northern Europe and Scandinavia, and was cooked in many different ways, such as bread, porridge, pudding, soup, or salad. Wila (Bryoria fremontii) was an important food in parts of North America, where it was usually pitcooked. It is even featured in a Secwepemc story
Sk'elep
Sk'elep or Coyote is the traditional trickster figure in the pantheon of Secwepemc mythology. He is featured in many legends and has many powers, including the ability to die and come back to life. Like the animal his character is enjoined to, he is very clever...
. Reindeer lichen
Cladonia rangiferina
Cladonia rangiferina, also known as Reindeer lichen , lat., is a light-colored, fruticose lichen belonging to the family Cladoniaceae. It grows in both hot and cold climates in well-drained, open environments. Found primarily in areas of alpine tundra, it is extremely cold-hardy.Other common names...
(Cladina spp.) is a staple food of reindeer and caribou in the Arctic. Northern peoples in North America and Siberia traditionally eat the partially digested lichen after they remove it from the rumen
Rumen
The rumen, also known as a paunch, forms the larger part of the reticulorumen, which is the first chamber in the alimentary canal of ruminant animals. It serves as the primary site for microbial fermentation of ingested feed...
of caribou that have been killed. It is often called 'stomach icecream'. Rock tripe
Rock tripe
Rock tripe is a lichen of the genus Umbilicaria that grows on rocks. It can be found throughout northern parts of North America such as New England and the Rocky Mountains...
(Umbilicaria spp. and Lasalia spp.) is a lichen that has frequently been used as an emergency food in North America. One species of Umbilicaria, Iwa-take
Umbilicaria esculenta
Umbilicaria esculenta is a lichen of the genus Umbilicaria that grows on rocks. It can be found in East Asia including in China, Japan, and Korea . It is edible when properly prepared and has been used as a food source and medicine...
(U. esculenta), is used in a variety of traditional Korean and Japanese foods. It is quite expensive, and is collected off the sides of cliffs. In India, and other centers of curry powder production, garam masala
Garam masala
Garam masala is a blend of ground spices common in North Indian and other South Asian cuisines. It is used alone or with other seasonings. The word garam refers to intensity of the spices rather than capsaicin content...
sauce contains certain lichens used as bulking agents.
Very few lichens are poisonous. Poisonous lichens include those high in vulpinic acid
Vulpinic acid
Vulpinic acid is a naturally occurring pulvinic acid derivative found in several lichen species, as well as some non-lichenized fungi. It was first isolated in 1925. It is bright yellow, and relatively toxic.-Occurrence in Lichen:...
or usnic acid
Usnic acid
Usnic acid is a naturally occurring dibenzofuran derivative found in several lichen species. It was first isolated by German scientist W. Knop in 1844 and first synthesized between 1933-1937 by Curd and Robertson. Usnic acid was identified in many genera of lichens including Usnea, Cladonia,...
. Most (but not all) lichens that contain vulpinic acid are yellow, so any yellow lichen should be considered to be potentially poisonous.
Lichens for embalming
EmbalmingEmbalming
Embalming, in most modern cultures, is the art and science of temporarily preserving human remains to forestall decomposition and to make them suitable for public display at a funeral. The three goals of embalming are thus sanitization, presentation and preservation of a corpse to achieve this...
began in Egypt about 5,000 years ago, and the use of lichens in embalming can be seen dating back to the 18th Dynasty where Pseudevernia furfuracea
Pseudevernia furfuracea
Pseudevernia furfuracea, commonly known as tree moss, is a lichenized species of fungus that grows on the bark of firs and pines. The lichen is rather sensitive to air pollution, its presence usually indicating good air conditions in the growing place. The species has numerous human uses, including...
was found in an Egyptian vase. The process of using lichens in embalming is a fascinating discovery. For starters, to embalm a body, a slit was made in the abdomen and the organs and viscera were removed. The organs and viscera were wrapped in separate linen packets and replaced in the body or put in canopic jars between the legs. The body cavity was then packed with lichen, sawdust, bruised myrrh, cassia, and every other spices. Pseudevernia furfuracea was employed due to its preservative
Preservative
A preservative is a naturally occurring or synthetically produced substance that is added to products such as foods, pharmaceuticals, paints, biological samples, wood, etc. to prevent decomposition by microbial growth or by undesirable chemical changes....
and aromatic qualities. Also it was used simply as a highly absorbent, light-weight packaging material. It also contains antibiotic substances. These qualities helped inhibit bacterial decay of the mummies. Another discovery is that the Egyptians would grind and mix Pseudevernia furfuracea with their flour for bread. The bread was then placed with the mummy and thought to be the first meal for the mummy in its afterlife. Pseudevernia furfuracea was imported shiploads from the Grecian archipelago to Alexandria. Whether Pseudevernia furfuracea, was used for embalming, medicinal purposes, or as an ingredient in bread, it has its place in history as an important plant connecting a culture to its environment. Today, embalming fluids are colored from the lichen dye orchil into a product called Cudbear, illustrating how a historical procedure can influence future practices.
Other human uses of lichens
Lichens have been and are still being used for many other purposes, including- Alcohol production (for fermentable carbohydrates, as catalysts, and/or as flavour/preservatives)
- Cosmetics (for hair, and/or sweet smelling powders)
- Perfumes (see OakmossOakmossEvernia prunastri, also known as Oakmoss, is a species of lichen. It can be found in many mountainous temperate forests throughout the Northern Hemisphere, including parts of France, Portugal, Spain, North America, and much of Central Europe...
) - Decorations (including costumes and artwork)
- Fibre (clothing, housing, cooking, sanitation)
- Animal feed (both fodder and forage)
- Fuel
- Industrial purposes (production of acid, antibiotic, carbohydrate, litmus)
- Tanning
- Hunting/fishing (to find prey, or to lure them in)
- Navigation
- Insect repellent/insecticide
- Preservatives (for food or beer)
- Poison (arrowheads, wolves: see Letharia vulpinaLetharia vulpinaLetharia vulpina, commonly known as the wolf lichen, is a fruticose lichenized species of fungus in the family Parmeliaceae. It is bright yellow-green, shrubby and highly branched, and grows on the bark of living and dead conifers in parts of western and continental Europe, the Pacific Northwest...
) - Mummies (see Pseudevernia furfuraceaPseudevernia furfuraceaPseudevernia furfuracea, commonly known as tree moss, is a lichenized species of fungus that grows on the bark of firs and pines. The lichen is rather sensitive to air pollution, its presence usually indicating good air conditions in the growing place. The species has numerous human uses, including...
) - Rituals
- Magic
- Tobacco
- Narcotics
- Hallucinogens (see DictyonemaDictyonemaDictyonema is a large and diverse genus of mainly tropical lichens in the family Hygrophoraceae.-The Dictyonema symbiosis:Most lichens are a symbiosis between an ascomycete fungi and a photosynthetic green algae...
)