Exaggeration
Encyclopedia
Exaggeration is a representation of something in an excessive manner. The exaggerator has been a familiar figure in Western culture since at least Aristotle
's discussion of the alazon
: 'the boaster is regarded as one who pretends to have distinguished qualities which he possesses either not at all or to a lesser degree than he pretends...exaggerating'.
Words or expressions associated with exaggeration include:
or manipulative
people has been sent up on stage since the first appearance of the alazon - 'a stock character in Greek comedy'. Inflated praise
in the form of flattery
and puffery
has a similarly lengthy history.
Amplifying achievements, obstacles and problems to seek attention
is an everyday occurrence, as 'in exaggerating what one feels by magnifying the emotional expression: this is the ploy used by the six-year-old who dramatically twists her face into a pathetic frown, lips quivering, as she runs to complain to her mother about being teased'.
Exaggerating is also a type of deception, as well as a means of malingering - magnifying small injuries or discomforts as an excuse to avoid responsibilities
.
) as unconscious, unrealistic mental processing or cognitive distortion
, which can take the form of probability overestimation or of catastrophizing. 'Whereas probability overestimation refers to exaggerating the "likelihood" of an event, catastrophizing refers to exaggerating the "importance" of the event'. Closely related 'is overgeneralizing. You take a single negative event and see it as a never-ending pattern of defeat'.
Another form of cognitive exaggeration is inflation of the difficulty of achieving a goal after attaining it, possibly to improve self-esteem
.
In depression, exaggerated all-or-nothing thinking can form a self-reinforcing cycle: 'these thoughts might be called emotional amplifiers because, as they go around and around, they become more intense....Here are some typical all-or-nothing thoughts:
considered that 'if neurotic exaggerations - namely, attitudes in which a relatively harmless thing is emotionally overvalued - are analyzed, the results demonstrate that they are derivatives of something that has been repressed...displacement
'. Thus for example a conflict over ambivalence
may be resolved 'by this means. The subject's hatred of a person whom he loves is kept down by an exaggerated amount of tenderness for him'.
The grandiose
sense of self-importance observed in narcissists
also uses exaggeration to thwart any recognition of fallibility, 'any step towards help....The grandiose side of the self always steps in at such a moment and exaggerates the truth, saying something like, "You see? Everything you've done is absolutely hopeless'.
"Self-dramatization, theatricality, and exaggerated expression of emotion" can be observed in those with histrionic personality disorder
and other Cluster B personality disorders; while "catastrophizing" is associated with depressive, neurotic or paranoid behavior – focusing on the worst possible outcome, however unlikely, or thinking that a situation is unbearable or impossible when it is really just uncomfortable.
Exaggeration may also be observed in abusers or manipulators to amplify or fabricate faults of the victim as a component of victim blaming
.
that exaggerates or distorts the essence of a person or thing to create an easily identifiable visual likeness: 'disproportionately increasing and emphasizing the defects of the features'. In literature, a caricature is a description of a person using exaggeration of some characteristics and oversimplification of others.
involving exaggerated physical violence and activities which exceed the boundaries of common sense. These exaggerated depictions are often found in children's cartoons, and light film comedies aimed at younger audiences.
is a son of Jove and Venus who has killed an elephant with his fist and seven thousand men in one day's fighting. In other words, he is trying to put on a good show: the exuberance of his boasting helps to put the play over'.
s and speech when acting
. It may be unintentional, particularly in the case of a bad actor
, or be required for the role. For the latter, it is commonly used in comical situations or to stress the evil
characteristics of a villain
. Since the perception of acting quality differs between people the extent of overacting can be subjective.
, even in Othello
, is unmistakable, as is the touch of the obsessed philosopher in Faustus and Hamlet
'.
...kept much of the distortion and exaggeration which had been one of the chief devices of earlier Expressionism'.
Aristotle
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology...
's discussion of the alazon
Alazon
In the theatre of ancient Greece, alazôn is one of three stock characters in comedy. He is the opponent of the eirôn. The alazôn is an impostor that sees himself as greater than he actually is. The senex iratus and the miles gloriosus are two types of alazôn.-Sources:* Carlson, Marvin. 1993...
: 'the boaster is regarded as one who pretends to have distinguished qualities which he possesses either not at all or to a lesser degree than he pretends...exaggerating'.
Words or expressions associated with exaggeration include:
Everyday and psycho-pathological contexts
Contexts of exaggeration include:Manipulation
The boasting and bragging by arrogantHubris
Hubris , also hybris, means extreme haughtiness, pride or arrogance. Hubris often indicates a loss of contact with reality and an overestimation of one's own competence or capabilities, especially when the person exhibiting it is in a position of power....
or manipulative
Psychological manipulation
Psychological manipulation is a type of social influence that aims to change the perception or behavior of others through underhanded, deceptive, or even abusive tactics. By advancing the interests of the manipulator, often at the other's expense, such methods could be considered exploitative,...
people has been sent up on stage since the first appearance of the alazon - 'a stock character in Greek comedy'. Inflated praise
Praise
Praise is the act of making positive statements about a person, object or idea, either in public or privately. Praise is typically, but not exclusively, earned relative to achievement and accomplishment...
in the form of flattery
Flattery
Flattery is the act of giving excessive compliments, generally for the purpose of ingratiating oneself with the subject....
and puffery
Puffery
Puffery as a legal term refers to promotional statements and claims that express subjective rather than objective views, which no "reasonable person" would take literally...
has a similarly lengthy history.
Amplifying achievements, obstacles and problems to seek attention
Attention seeking
Enjoying the attention of others is quite socially acceptable. In some instances, however, the need for attention can lead to difficulties. The term attention seeking is generally reserved for such situations where excessive and "inappropriate attention seeking" is seen.-Styles:The following...
is an everyday occurrence, as 'in exaggerating what one feels by magnifying the emotional expression: this is the ploy used by the six-year-old who dramatically twists her face into a pathetic frown, lips quivering, as she runs to complain to her mother about being teased'.
Exaggerating is also a type of deception, as well as a means of malingering - magnifying small injuries or discomforts as an excuse to avoid responsibilities
Malingering
Malingering is a medical term that refers to fabricating or exaggerating the symptoms of mental or physical disorders for a variety of "secondary gain" motives, which may include financial compensation ; avoiding school, work or military service; obtaining drugs; getting lighter criminal sentences;...
.
Cognitive distortions
Cognitive behavioral therapy views magnification (as opposed to minimizationMinimisation (psychology)
Minimisation is a type of deception involving denial coupled with rationalisation in situations where complete denial is implausible. It is the opposite of exaggeration....
) as unconscious, unrealistic mental processing or cognitive distortion
Cognitive distortion
Cognitive distortions are exaggerated and irrational thoughts identified in cognitive therapy and its variants, which in theory perpetuate certain psychological disorders. The theory of cognitive distortions was first proposed by Aaron T. Beck. Eliminating these distortions and negative thoughts is...
, which can take the form of probability overestimation or of catastrophizing. 'Whereas probability overestimation refers to exaggerating the "likelihood" of an event, catastrophizing refers to exaggerating the "importance" of the event'. Closely related 'is overgeneralizing. You take a single negative event and see it as a never-ending pattern of defeat'.
Another form of cognitive exaggeration is inflation of the difficulty of achieving a goal after attaining it, possibly to improve self-esteem
Self-esteem
Self-esteem is a term in psychology to reflect a person's overall evaluation or appraisal of his or her own worth. Self-esteem encompasses beliefs and emotions such as triumph, despair, pride and shame: some would distinguish how 'the self-concept is what we think about the self; self-esteem, the...
.
In depression, exaggerated all-or-nothing thinking can form a self-reinforcing cycle: 'these thoughts might be called emotional amplifiers because, as they go around and around, they become more intense....Here are some typical all-or-nothing thoughts:
- My efforts are either a success or they are an abject failure
- I am/other people are either all good or all bad
- if you're not with us, you're against us'.
Pathology
PsychoanalysisPsychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis is a psychological theory developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries by Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud. Psychoanalysis has expanded, been criticized and developed in different directions, mostly by some of Freud's former students, such as Alfred Adler and Carl Gustav...
considered that 'if neurotic exaggerations - namely, attitudes in which a relatively harmless thing is emotionally overvalued - are analyzed, the results demonstrate that they are derivatives of something that has been repressed...displacement
Displacement (psychology)
In Freudian psychology, displacement is an unconscious defense mechanism whereby the mind redirects effects from an object felt to be dangerous or unacceptable to an object felt to be safe or acceptable...
'. Thus for example a conflict over ambivalence
Ambivalence
Ambivalence is a state of having simultaneous, conflicting feelings toward a person or thing. Stated another way, ambivalence is the experience of having thoughts and/or emotions of both positive and negative valence toward someone or something. A common example of ambivalence is the feeling of...
may be resolved 'by this means. The subject's hatred of a person whom he loves is kept down by an exaggerated amount of tenderness for him'.
The grandiose
Grandiosity
Grandiosity is chiefly associated with narcissistic personality disorder, but also commonly features in manic or hypomanic episodes of bipolar disorder....
sense of self-importance observed in narcissists
Narcissistic personality disorder
Narcissistic personality disorder is a personality disorder in which the individual is described as being excessively preoccupied with issues of personal adequacy, power, prestige and vanity...
also uses exaggeration to thwart any recognition of fallibility, 'any step towards help....The grandiose side of the self always steps in at such a moment and exaggerates the truth, saying something like, "You see? Everything you've done is absolutely hopeless'.
"Self-dramatization, theatricality, and exaggerated expression of emotion" can be observed in those with histrionic personality disorder
Histrionic personality disorder
Histrionic personality disorder is defined by the American Psychiatric Association as a personality disorder characterized by a pattern of excessive emotionality and attention-seeking, including an excessive need for approval and inappropriately seductive behavior, usually beginning in early...
and other Cluster B personality disorders; while "catastrophizing" is associated with depressive, neurotic or paranoid behavior – focusing on the worst possible outcome, however unlikely, or thinking that a situation is unbearable or impossible when it is really just uncomfortable.
Exaggeration may also be observed in abusers or manipulators to amplify or fabricate faults of the victim as a component of victim blaming
Victim blaming
Victim blaming occurs when the victim of a crime, an accident, or any type of abusive maltreatment are held entirely or partially responsible for the transgressions committed against them. Blaming the victim has traditionally emerged especially in racist and sexist forms...
.
Humour
'Some theoreticians of the comic consider exaggeration to be a universal comic device'. It may take different forms in different genres, but all rely on the fact that 'the easiest way to make things laughable is to exaggerate to the point of absurdity their salient traits'.Caricature
A caricature can refer to a portraitPortrait
thumb|250px|right|Portrait of [[Thomas Jefferson]] by [[Rembrandt Peale]], 1805. [[New-York Historical Society]].A portrait is a painting, photograph, sculpture, or other artistic representation of a person, in which the face and its expression is predominant. The intent is to display the likeness,...
that exaggerates or distorts the essence of a person or thing to create an easily identifiable visual likeness: 'disproportionately increasing and emphasizing the defects of the features'. In literature, a caricature is a description of a person using exaggeration of some characteristics and oversimplification of others.
Slapstick
Slapstick is a type of comedyComedy
Comedy , as a popular meaning, is any humorous discourse or work generally intended to amuse by creating laughter, especially in television, film, and stand-up comedy. This must be carefully distinguished from its academic definition, namely the comic theatre, whose Western origins are found in...
involving exaggerated physical violence and activities which exceed the boundaries of common sense. These exaggerated depictions are often found in children's cartoons, and light film comedies aimed at younger audiences.
Paradoxical laughter
Paradoxical laughter is an exaggerated expression of humor which is unwarranted by external events. It may be uncontrollable laughter which may be recognised as inappropriate by the person involved. Freud considered 'the compulsive laughter which so often occurs on mournful occasions' the by-product of ambivalence.Miles Gloriosus
The boastful soldier or Miles Gloriosus has for thousands of years formed part of the Western stage. 'The original miles gloriosus in PlautusPlautus
Titus Maccius Plautus , commonly known as "Plautus", was a Roman playwright of the Old Latin period. His comedies are the earliest surviving intact works in Latin literature. He wrote Palliata comoedia, the genre devised by the innovator of Latin literature, Livius Andronicus...
is a son of Jove and Venus who has killed an elephant with his fist and seven thousand men in one day's fighting. In other words, he is trying to put on a good show: the exuberance of his boasting helps to put the play over'.
Overacting
Overacting is the exaggeration of gestureGesture
A gesture is a form of non-verbal communication in which visible bodily actions communicate particular messages, either in place of speech or together and in parallel with spoken words. Gestures include movement of the hands, face, or other parts of the body...
s and speech when acting
Acting
Acting is the work of an actor or actress, which is a person in theatre, television, film, or any other storytelling medium who tells the story by portraying a character and, usually, speaking or singing the written text or play....
. It may be unintentional, particularly in the case of a bad actor
Actor
An actor is a person who acts in a dramatic production and who works in film, television, theatre, or radio in that capacity...
, or be required for the role. For the latter, it is commonly used in comical situations or to stress the evil
Evil
Evil is the violation of, or intent to violate, some moral code. Evil is usually seen as the dualistic opposite of good. Definitions of evil vary along with analysis of its root motive causes, however general actions commonly considered evil include: conscious and deliberate wrongdoing,...
characteristics of a villain
Villain
A villain is an "evil" character in a story, whether a historical narrative or, especially, a work of fiction. The villain usually is the antagonist, the character who tends to have a negative effect on other characters...
. Since the perception of acting quality differs between people the extent of overacting can be subjective.
Tragedy
Though the boaster (alazon) is primarily a comic figure, 'the alazon may be one aspect of the tragic hero as well: the touch of miles gloriosus in TamburlaineTamburlaine (play)
Tamburlaine the Great is the name of a play in two parts by Christopher Marlowe. It is loosely based on the life of the Central Asian emperor, Timur 'the lame'...
, even in Othello
Othello (character)
Othello is a character in Shakespeare's Othello . The character's origin is traced to the tale, "Un Capitano Moro" in Gli Hecatommithi by Giovanni Battista Giraldi Cinthio. There, he is simply referred to as the Moor....
, is unmistakable, as is the touch of the obsessed philosopher in Faustus and Hamlet
Prince Hamlet
Prince Hamlet is a fictional character, the protagonist in Shakespeare's tragedy Hamlet. He is the Prince of Denmark, nephew to the usurping Claudius and son of the previous King of Denmark, Old Hamlet. Throughout the play he struggles with whether, and how, to avenge the murder of his father, and...
'.
Expressionism
'"Expressionist art"...attempted to intensify the expression of feeling and attitude by exaggeration'. In its wake, even the 'new and hard realismNew Objectivity
The New Objectivity is a term used to characterize the attitude of public life in Weimar Germany as well as the art, literature, music, and architecture created to adapt to it...
...kept much of the distortion and exaggeration which had been one of the chief devices of earlier Expressionism'.
Metaphors
- "Making a mountain out of a molehillMake a mountain out of a molehillMaking a mountain out of a molehill is an idiom referring to over-reactive, histrionic behaviour where a person makes too much of a minor issue.-Metaphor:...
" - "Blow out of proportion" or "Blow out of all proportion"
- "The sky is falling in"
- "World War III has broken out"
Literary analogues
- In the BookWorldBookWorldThe BookWorld is a fictitious and complex environment that acts as a "behind-the-scenes" area of books. The BookWorld was created by Jasper Fforde in his Thursday Next series...
, warnings are issued about ' Poetry Island...any visit longer than a few hours will have an exaggerating effect on the senses. Upbeat poems will tend to have you laughing uncontrollably, while sombre poems will have you questioning your own worth in a most hideously self-obsessed manner'. - The Monty PythonMonty PythonMonty Python was a British surreal comedy group who created their influential Monty Python's Flying Circus, a British television comedy sketch show that first aired on the BBC on 5 October 1969. Forty-five episodes were made over four series...
Dirty Fork sketch demonstrates an absurd level of catastrophization where restaurant staff commit suicide and murder each other because of a customer complaint of a dirty fork.
See also
Books
- Duttmann, AG; Phillips, J Philosophy of Exaggeration (Continuum Studies in Continental Philosophy) (2007)
Academic papers
- Clayer, JR; Bookless, C; Ross, MW NeurosisNeurosisNeurosis is a class of functional mental disorders involving distress but neither delusions nor hallucinations, whereby behavior is not outside socially acceptable norms. It is also known as psychoneurosis or neurotic disorder, and thus those suffering from it are said to be neurotic...
and conscious symptom exaggeration: Its differentiation by the illness behaviour questionnaire Journal of Psychosomatic Research Volume 28, Issue 3, 1984, Pages 237-241 - Demaree, HA; Schmeichel, BJ; Robinson, JL; Everhart, D. Erik Behavioural, affective, and physiological effects of negative and positive emotional exaggeration. Cognition and Emotion, Volume 18, Number 8, 2004, 1079-1097(19)
- Masterson, J; Dunworth, R; Williams, N Extreme illness exaggeration in pediatric patients: A variant of Munchausen's by ProxyMunchausen syndrome by proxyMünchausen syndrome by proxy is a label for a pattern of behavior in which care-givers deliberately exaggerate, fabricate, and/or induce physical, psychological, behavioral, and/or mental health problems in others. Other experts classified MSbP as a mental illness...
?. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. Vol 58(2), Apr 1988, 188-195. - McNicholas, F Slonims, V & Cass H Exaggeration of Symptoms or Psychiatric Munchausen's Syndrome by ProxyMunchausen syndrome by proxyMünchausen syndrome by proxy is a label for a pattern of behavior in which care-givers deliberately exaggerate, fabricate, and/or induce physical, psychological, behavioral, and/or mental health problems in others. Other experts classified MSbP as a mental illness...
? Child and Adolescent Mental Health 2003 Volume 5 Issue 2, Pages 69 – 75 - Mittenberg, W; Patton, C; Canyock, EM; Condit, DC Base rates of malingering and symptom exaggeration. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology. Vol 24(8), Dec 2002, 1094-1102.
- Mueller, J Simplicity and spook: Terrorism and the dynamics of threat exaggeration International Studies Perspectives, 2005
- Pieper, WJ Exaggeration, puffery, inferentialInferenceInference is the act or process of deriving logical conclusions from premises known or assumed to be true. The conclusion drawn is also called an idiomatic. The laws of valid inference are studied in the field of logic.Human inference Inference is the act or process of deriving logical conclusions...
beliefs and deception in advertising - 1976 - University of South Carolina. - Sperling, OE Exaggeration as a Defense. Psychoanal Q., 32:553-548. (1963).