Fallacies of definition
Encyclopedia
Fallacies of definition refer to the various ways in which definition
s can fail to have merit. The term is used to suggest analogy
with the logical fallacies
. This is a typical sort of list found in texts used in college logic
courses.
s, somewhat similar to a question-begging
argument: neither offers us any enlightenment about what we wanted to know.
. For example, suppose we define the word "virtue
"—an important word in ethics
—by just using the word "excellence
". It might be perfectly true that all virtues are excellences and all excellences are virtues, but the word "excellence" itself is not a good definition of "virtue" in philosophy. One can always simply ask, "But what does 'excellence' mean?" Surely, if one has a basic confusion about what "virtue" means, then one may also have a basic philosophical confusion about what "excellence" might mean.
' as 'possessing aesthetic value'. The words 'beautiful' and 'aesthetic' are very nearly the same in meaning; so if anyone is deeply confused or curious about beauty, then he or she is of course going to be confused or curious about the aesthetic. The question is what general characteristics are possessed by all beautiful objects, or all objects that have aesthetic value.
of the word defined. Suppose one defines 'bachelor
' as 'unmarried male
'. At first glance this might look correct, but male is a word that can apply to many things. For example, unmarried male dog
s and unmarried male babies are not considered bachelors. Narrowing the definition can avoid this problem. In this case, 'bachelor' can mean 'unmarried man'. However, the Pope, or a man whose wife has died and who has not remarried, are not considered bachelors either — so if it is to fit the common conception, the definition must be further narrowed to 'a man who is socially regarded as able to marry, but has not yet'.
. Here is an example of a narrow definition: 'piece of furniture
' means 'object used to sit on'. Of course, some pieces of furniture are not used to sit on; for example, we put objects on them (like tables
) or in them (like a chest of drawers
) or we put our feet on them (like footstool
s), and so forth. So even though some pieces of furniture are objects that are used to sit on, not all furniture is. We need a broader definition: we might add other qualifying characteristics, like 'used to put feet up on' or 'used to put household objects on', for example. That would make the extension of the definition bigger — that is, the definition would apply to more things, and more of the things that we use the word 'furniture' to describe. We might also choose to entirely rewrite the definition, since "laundry lists" of seemingly disparate characteristics strung together by 'or' are probably not truly describing a single concept.
' as 'the insensible quivering of the soul'. Given a definition like this, one might ask: what is the insensible quivering of the soul? How would we recognize it? Is Johnny's soul insensibly quivering right now? To be useful, worthy of further discussion, definitions must be stated in plain, straightforward language that can be understood by the people to whom the definitions are given. Even an atrocious definition will elicit a better definition. See jargon
.
An often quoted example is Samuel Johnson's
definition for oat
s: "Oats: a grain which in England is generally given to horses, but in Scotland
, supports the people", to which his Scots friend, Lord Elibank
, retorted, "Yes, and where else will you see such horses and such men?"
is killing your parents and then throwing yourself on the mercy of the court citing that you are an orphan." Such a definition is only useful if the reader has some larger context for the term being defined.
Even a series of examples may be inadequate. For example, "Edentates are mammals such as voles and tenrecs," does not help the reader to decide if, say, shrews are edentates or not, even if the reader knows what voles and tenrecs are.
Finally, combination of definitional fallacies can create complex definitions that are fallacious; example: "Situationism is the intellectual framework of situationist movements such as the student protests in France in 1968." If we remove the example, the remaining definition is circular. So this definition does not serve the needs that definition should, such as being able to determine if say, Ann Coulter
were a situationist.
Definition
A definition is a passage that explains the meaning of a term , or a type of thing. The term to be defined is the definiendum. A term may have many different senses or meanings...
s can fail to have merit. The term is used to suggest analogy
Analogy
Analogy is a cognitive process of transferring information or meaning from a particular subject to another particular subject , and a linguistic expression corresponding to such a process...
with the logical fallacies
Formal fallacy
In philosophy, a formal fallacy is a pattern of reasoning that is always wrong. This is due to a flaw in the logical structure of the argument which renders the argument invalid...
. This is a typical sort of list found in texts used in college logic
Logic
In philosophy, Logic is the formal systematic study of the principles of valid inference and correct reasoning. Logic is used in most intellectual activities, but is studied primarily in the disciplines of philosophy, mathematics, semantics, and computer science...
courses.
Circularity
If one concept is defined by another, and the other is defined by the first, we have a pair of circular definitionCircular definition
A circular definition is one that uses the term being defined as a part of the definition or assumes a prior understanding of the term being defined. Either the audience must already know the meaning of the key term, or the definition is deficient in including the term to be defined in the...
s, somewhat similar to a question-begging
Begging the question
Begging the question is a type of logical fallacy in which the proposition to be proven is assumed implicitly or explicitly in the premise....
argument: neither offers us any enlightenment about what we wanted to know.
Defining with a synonym
A definition is no good if it simply gives a one-word synonymSynonym
Synonyms are different words with almost identical or similar meanings. Words that are synonyms are said to be synonymous, and the state of being a synonym is called synonymy. The word comes from Ancient Greek syn and onoma . The words car and automobile are synonyms...
. For example, suppose we define the word "virtue
Virtue
Virtue is moral excellence. A virtue is a positive trait or quality subjectively deemed to be morally excellent and thus is valued as a foundation of principle and good moral being....
"—an important word in ethics
Ethics
Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, is a branch of philosophy that addresses questions about morality—that is, concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime, etc.Major branches of ethics include:...
—by just using the word "excellence
Excellence
Excellence is a talent or quality which is unusually good and so surpasses ordinary standards. It is also an aimed for standard of performance.-History:...
". It might be perfectly true that all virtues are excellences and all excellences are virtues, but the word "excellence" itself is not a good definition of "virtue" in philosophy. One can always simply ask, "But what does 'excellence' mean?" Surely, if one has a basic confusion about what "virtue" means, then one may also have a basic philosophical confusion about what "excellence" might mean.
Defining with a near-synonym
A definition does no good if it uses a very near synonym in the definition. For example, suppose we define 'beautifulBeauty
Beauty is a characteristic of a person, animal, place, object, or idea that provides a perceptual experience of pleasure, meaning, or satisfaction. Beauty is studied as part of aesthetics, sociology, social psychology, and culture...
' as 'possessing aesthetic value'. The words 'beautiful' and 'aesthetic' are very nearly the same in meaning; so if anyone is deeply confused or curious about beauty, then he or she is of course going to be confused or curious about the aesthetic. The question is what general characteristics are possessed by all beautiful objects, or all objects that have aesthetic value.
Over-broad definitions
A definition is too broad if it applies to things that are not part of the extensionExtension (semantics)
In any of several studies that treat the use of signs - for example, in linguistics, logic, mathematics, semantics, and semiotics - the extension of a concept, idea, or sign consists of the things to which it applies, in contrast with its comprehension or intension, which consists very roughly of...
of the word defined. Suppose one defines 'bachelor
Bachelor
A bachelor is a man above the age of majority who has never been married . Unlike his female counterpart, the spinster, a bachelor may have had children...
' as 'unmarried male
Male
Male refers to the biological sex of an organism, or part of an organism, which produces small mobile gametes, called spermatozoa. Each spermatozoon can fuse with a larger female gamete or ovum, in the process of fertilization...
'. At first glance this might look correct, but male is a word that can apply to many things. For example, unmarried male dog
Dog
The domestic dog is a domesticated form of the gray wolf, a member of the Canidae family of the order Carnivora. The term is used for both feral and pet varieties. The dog may have been the first animal to be domesticated, and has been the most widely kept working, hunting, and companion animal in...
s and unmarried male babies are not considered bachelors. Narrowing the definition can avoid this problem. In this case, 'bachelor' can mean 'unmarried man'. However, the Pope, or a man whose wife has died and who has not remarried, are not considered bachelors either — so if it is to fit the common conception, the definition must be further narrowed to 'a man who is socially regarded as able to marry, but has not yet'.
Over-narrow definitions
Definitions are considered "over-narrow" when they exclude certain aspects, characteristics or applications of the term, thereby falling short of a full and true definition as they fail to describe particular members of the word's extensionExtension (semantics)
In any of several studies that treat the use of signs - for example, in linguistics, logic, mathematics, semantics, and semiotics - the extension of a concept, idea, or sign consists of the things to which it applies, in contrast with its comprehension or intension, which consists very roughly of...
. Here is an example of a narrow definition: 'piece of furniture
Furniture
Furniture is the mass noun for the movable objects intended to support various human activities such as seating and sleeping in beds, to hold objects at a convenient height for work using horizontal surfaces above the ground, or to store things...
' means 'object used to sit on'. Of course, some pieces of furniture are not used to sit on; for example, we put objects on them (like tables
Table (furniture)
A table is a form of furniture with a flat and satisfactory horizontal upper surface used to support objects of interest, for storage, show, and/or manipulation...
) or in them (like a chest of drawers
Chest of drawers
A chest of drawers, also called a dresser or a bureau, is a piece of furniture that has multiple parallel, horizontal drawers stacked one above another...
) or we put our feet on them (like footstool
Footstool
A footstool is a piece of furniture, the purpose of which is to support one's feet. There are two main types of footstools, which can be loosely categorized into two categories, those designed for comfort and those designed for function....
s), and so forth. So even though some pieces of furniture are objects that are used to sit on, not all furniture is. We need a broader definition: we might add other qualifying characteristics, like 'used to put feet up on' or 'used to put household objects on', for example. That would make the extension of the definition bigger — that is, the definition would apply to more things, and more of the things that we use the word 'furniture' to describe. We might also choose to entirely rewrite the definition, since "laundry lists" of seemingly disparate characteristics strung together by 'or' are probably not truly describing a single concept.
Obscurity
Definitions can go wrong by using ambiguous, obscure, or figurative language. Suppose we defined 'loveLove
Love is an emotion of strong affection and personal attachment. In philosophical context, love is a virtue representing all of human kindness, compassion, and affection. Love is central to many religions, as in the Christian phrase, "God is love" or Agape in the Canonical gospels...
' as 'the insensible quivering of the soul'. Given a definition like this, one might ask: what is the insensible quivering of the soul? How would we recognize it? Is Johnny's soul insensibly quivering right now? To be useful, worthy of further discussion, definitions must be stated in plain, straightforward language that can be understood by the people to whom the definitions are given. Even an atrocious definition will elicit a better definition. See jargon
Jargon
Jargon is terminology which is especially defined in relationship to a specific activity, profession, group, or event. The philosophe Condillac observed in 1782 that "Every science requires a special language because every science has its own ideas." As a rationalist member of the Enlightenment he...
.
An often quoted example is Samuel Johnson's
Samuel Johnson
Samuel Johnson , often referred to as Dr. Johnson, was an English author who made lasting contributions to English literature as a poet, essayist, moralist, literary critic, biographer, editor and lexicographer...
definition for oat
Oat
The common oat is a species of cereal grain grown for its seed, which is known by the same name . While oats are suitable for human consumption as oatmeal and rolled oats, one of the most common uses is as livestock feed...
s: "Oats: a grain which in England is generally given to horses, but in Scotland
Scotland
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the...
, supports the people", to which his Scots friend, Lord Elibank
Patrick Murray, 5th Lord Elibank
Patrick Murray, 5th Lord Elibank . Son of Alexander Murray, 4th Lord Elibank and Elizabeth Stirling. An author and economist much respected in his own time. Member of the Cocoa Tree Club and The Poker Club. Uncle of Major Patrick Ferguson killed at the Battle of King's Mountain in 1780.In 1722...
, retorted, "Yes, and where else will you see such horses and such men?"
Examples and definition in context
Examples are by themselves insufficient to define a term. For instance: "ChutzpahChutzpah
Chutzpah is the quality of audacity, for good or for bad, but it is generally used negatively. The Yiddish word derives from the Hebrew word , meaning "insolence", "audacity". The modern English usage of the word has taken on a broader meaning, having been popularized through vernacular use in...
is killing your parents and then throwing yourself on the mercy of the court citing that you are an orphan." Such a definition is only useful if the reader has some larger context for the term being defined.
Even a series of examples may be inadequate. For example, "Edentates are mammals such as voles and tenrecs," does not help the reader to decide if, say, shrews are edentates or not, even if the reader knows what voles and tenrecs are.
Finally, combination of definitional fallacies can create complex definitions that are fallacious; example: "Situationism is the intellectual framework of situationist movements such as the student protests in France in 1968." If we remove the example, the remaining definition is circular. So this definition does not serve the needs that definition should, such as being able to determine if say, Ann Coulter
Ann Coulter
Ann Hart Coulter is an American lawyer, conservative social and political commentator, author, and syndicated columnist. She frequently appears on television, radio, and as a speaker at public events and private events...
were a situationist.