Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center
Encyclopedia
Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center is the second book by bell hooks
, published in 1984. The book confirmed her importance as a leader in radical feminist thought.
Throughout the book, hooks uses the term white-supremacist capitalist patriarchy
as a lens through which to both critique various aspects of American
culture and to offer potential solutions to the problems she explores. hooks addresses topics including the goals of feminist movement, the role of men in feminist struggle, the relevance of pacifism
, solidarity among women, and the nature of revolution
. hooks can be identified in her discussions of these topics as a radical feminist because of her arguments that the system itself is corrupt and that achieving equality in such a system is neither possible nor desirable. She promotes instead a complete transformation of society and all of its institutions as a result of protracted struggle, envisioning a life-affirming, peaceful tomorrow.
A second edition, featuring a new preface, “Seeing the Light: Visionary Feminism,” was published in 2000. In the preface to the first edition, hooks, talking about black Americans in her hometown, discusses the meaning of her title’s “From Margin to Center:”
A distinguishing feature of Feminist Theory is hooks use of what is contemporarily called Intersectionality
in her analyses. An analysis of oppression that considers the intersecting nature of race and gender was pioneered by black feminist organizations of the 1970s. Hooks criticizes the “Sisterhood” framework of second-wave feminism, saying that the “emphasis on Sisterhood was often seen as emotional appeal masking the opportunism
of bourgeois white women." In “Feminism: A Movement to End Sexist Oppression,” chapter two, hooks offers a thorough critique of feminism
as defined by the feminist movement at the time, citing the racism
and classism
within it. Hooks proposes defining feminism “as a movement to end sexist oppression.” Additionally, hooks suggests saying “I advocate feminism,” as opposed to “I am a feminist,” in order to avoid the misconception of women’s issues taking precedence over issues of race, class, etc.
Another distinguishing feature of Feminist Theory is hooks’ insistence on the inclusion of men in the feminist movement. Hooks criticizes the anti-male stance of second-wave feminism
, asserting that this position “alienated many poor and working-class women, particularly non-white women, from feminist movement.” According to hooks, the second-wave feminists “reinforced sexist ideology by positing in an inverted form the notion of a basic conflict between the sexes, the implication being that the empowerment of women would necessarily be at the expense of men.” Hooks also points out that, by excluding men from the feminist movement, second-wave feminists essentially reinforced the sexual division of labor by making feminism the solely the responsibility of women.
Hooks asserts that, “Men are not exploited or oppressed by sexism, but there are ways in which they suffer as a result of it.” Hooks suggests using the negative effects of sexism on men as a way to motivate them into participation in feminism. According to hooks, women alone cannot achieve the goals of feminism, because, “men are the primary agents maintaining and supporting sexism and sexist oppression, they can only be eradicated if men are compelled to assume responsibility for transforming their consciousness and the consciousness of society as a whole.” Conclusively, hooks assert that, “Men who actively struggle against sexism have a place feminist movement. They are our comrades.”
Hooks also addresses several other issues relevant to feminism. She discusses the importance of black women in the feminist movement. Hooks discusses power as it pertains to women and oppression. Incorporating a critique of capitalism
into her critique of second-wave feminism, hooks analyses the nature of work as it applies to women. Hooks stresses the importance of education as a goal of feminism and advocates the development of “the development of an educational methodology that addresses the needs of all women.” Criticizing second-wave feminism for focusing on violence only in the form of male violence against women and defining militarism
as an expression of male violence, hooks asserts, “we must acknowledge that men and women have together made the United States a culture of violence and must work together to transform and recreate that culture. Women and men must oppose the use of violence as a means of social control in all its manifestations: war, male violence against women, adult violence against children, teenage violence, racial violence, etc.” Hooks also argues for feminist advocacy of child care, to “emphasize the need for collective parenting.” Regarding sexuality
, hooks states,
Bell hooks
Gloria Jean Watkins , better known by her pen name bell hooks, is an American author, feminist, and social activist....
, published in 1984. The book confirmed her importance as a leader in radical feminist thought.
Throughout the book, hooks uses the term white-supremacist capitalist patriarchy
Patriarchy
Patriarchy is a social system in which the role of the male as the primary authority figure is central to social organization, and where fathers hold authority over women, children, and property. It implies the institutions of male rule and privilege, and entails female subordination...
as a lens through which to both critique various aspects of American
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
culture and to offer potential solutions to the problems she explores. hooks addresses topics including the goals of feminist movement, the role of men in feminist struggle, the relevance of pacifism
Pacifism
Pacifism is the opposition to war and violence. The term "pacifism" was coined by the French peace campaignerÉmile Arnaud and adopted by other peace activists at the tenth Universal Peace Congress inGlasgow in 1901.- Definition :...
, solidarity among women, and the nature of revolution
Revolution
A revolution is a fundamental change in power or organizational structures that takes place in a relatively short period of time.Aristotle described two types of political revolution:...
. hooks can be identified in her discussions of these topics as a radical feminist because of her arguments that the system itself is corrupt and that achieving equality in such a system is neither possible nor desirable. She promotes instead a complete transformation of society and all of its institutions as a result of protracted struggle, envisioning a life-affirming, peaceful tomorrow.
A second edition, featuring a new preface, “Seeing the Light: Visionary Feminism,” was published in 2000. In the preface to the first edition, hooks, talking about black Americans in her hometown, discusses the meaning of her title’s “From Margin to Center:”
Living as we did—on the edge—we developed a particular way of seeing reality. We looked from both the outside in and the inside out. We focused our attention on the center as well as the margin. We understood both. This mode of seeing reminded us of the existence of a whole universe, a main body made up of both margin and center.
A distinguishing feature of Feminist Theory is hooks use of what is contemporarily called Intersectionality
Intersectionality
Intersectionality is a feminist sociological theory first highlighted by Kimberlé Crenshaw . Intersectionality is a methodology of studying "the relationships among multiple dimensions and modalities of social relationships and subject formations"...
in her analyses. An analysis of oppression that considers the intersecting nature of race and gender was pioneered by black feminist organizations of the 1970s. Hooks criticizes the “Sisterhood” framework of second-wave feminism, saying that the “emphasis on Sisterhood was often seen as emotional appeal masking the opportunism
Opportunism
-General definition:Opportunism is the conscious policy and practice of taking selfish advantage of circumstances, with little regard for principles. Opportunist actions are expedient actions guided primarily by self-interested motives. The term can be applied to individuals, groups,...
of bourgeois white women." In “Feminism: A Movement to End Sexist Oppression,” chapter two, hooks offers a thorough critique of feminism
Feminism
Feminism is a collection of movements aimed at defining, establishing, and defending equal political, economic, and social rights and equal opportunities for women. Its concepts overlap with those of women's rights...
as defined by the feminist movement at the time, citing the racism
Racism
Racism is the belief that inherent different traits in human racial groups justify discrimination. In the modern English language, the term "racism" is used predominantly as a pejorative epithet. It is applied especially to the practice or advocacy of racial discrimination of a pernicious nature...
and classism
Classism
Classism is prejudice or discrimination on the basis of social class. It includes individual attitudes and behaviors, systems of policies and practices that are set up to benefit the upper classes at the expense of the lower classes...
within it. Hooks proposes defining feminism “as a movement to end sexist oppression.” Additionally, hooks suggests saying “I advocate feminism,” as opposed to “I am a feminist,” in order to avoid the misconception of women’s issues taking precedence over issues of race, class, etc.
Another distinguishing feature of Feminist Theory is hooks’ insistence on the inclusion of men in the feminist movement. Hooks criticizes the anti-male stance of second-wave feminism
Second-wave feminism
The Feminist Movement, or the Women's Liberation Movement in the United States refers to a period of feminist activity which began during the early 1960s and lasted through the early 1990s....
, asserting that this position “alienated many poor and working-class women, particularly non-white women, from feminist movement.” According to hooks, the second-wave feminists “reinforced sexist ideology by positing in an inverted form the notion of a basic conflict between the sexes, the implication being that the empowerment of women would necessarily be at the expense of men.” Hooks also points out that, by excluding men from the feminist movement, second-wave feminists essentially reinforced the sexual division of labor by making feminism the solely the responsibility of women.
Hooks asserts that, “Men are not exploited or oppressed by sexism, but there are ways in which they suffer as a result of it.” Hooks suggests using the negative effects of sexism on men as a way to motivate them into participation in feminism. According to hooks, women alone cannot achieve the goals of feminism, because, “men are the primary agents maintaining and supporting sexism and sexist oppression, they can only be eradicated if men are compelled to assume responsibility for transforming their consciousness and the consciousness of society as a whole.” Conclusively, hooks assert that, “Men who actively struggle against sexism have a place feminist movement. They are our comrades.”
Hooks also addresses several other issues relevant to feminism. She discusses the importance of black women in the feminist movement. Hooks discusses power as it pertains to women and oppression. Incorporating a critique of capitalism
Capitalism
Capitalism is an economic system that became dominant in the Western world following the demise of feudalism. There is no consensus on the precise definition nor on how the term should be used as a historical category...
into her critique of second-wave feminism, hooks analyses the nature of work as it applies to women. Hooks stresses the importance of education as a goal of feminism and advocates the development of “the development of an educational methodology that addresses the needs of all women.” Criticizing second-wave feminism for focusing on violence only in the form of male violence against women and defining militarism
Militarism
Militarism is defined as: the belief or desire of a government or people that a country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or promote national interests....
as an expression of male violence, hooks asserts, “we must acknowledge that men and women have together made the United States a culture of violence and must work together to transform and recreate that culture. Women and men must oppose the use of violence as a means of social control in all its manifestations: war, male violence against women, adult violence against children, teenage violence, racial violence, etc.” Hooks also argues for feminist advocacy of child care, to “emphasize the need for collective parenting.” Regarding sexuality
Human sexuality
Human sexuality is the awareness of gender differences, and the capacity to have erotic experiences and responses. Human sexuality can also be described as the way someone is sexually attracted to another person whether it is to opposite sexes , to the same sex , to either sexes , or not being...
, hooks states,
A shift that will undoubtedly emerge as the struggle to end sexual oppression progresses will be decreased obsession with sexuality…sexuality will no longer have the importance attributed to it in a society that uses sexuality for the express purposes of maintaining gender inequality, male domination, consumerismConsumerismConsumerism is a social and economic order that is based on the systematic creation and fostering of a desire to purchase goods and services in ever greater amounts. The term is often associated with criticisms of consumption starting with Thorstein Veblen...
, and the sexual frustration and unhappiness that deflect attention away from the need to make a social revolution.