Foreign language
Encyclopedia
A foreign language is a language
indigenous
to another country. It is also a language not spoken in the native country of the person referred to, i.e. an English speaker living in Japan can say that Japanese
is a foreign language to him or her. These two characterisations do not exhaust the possible definitions, however, and the label is occasionally applied in ways that are variously misleading or factually inaccurate.
Some children learn more than one language from birth or from a very young age: they are bilingual or multilingual
. These children can be said to have two, three or more mother tongues: neither language is foreign to that child, even if one language is a foreign language for the vast majority of people in the child's birth country. For example, a child learning English from her English
father and Japanese at school in Japan can speak both English and Japanese, but neither is a foreign language to her.
Most schools around the world teach at least one foreign language. By 1998 nearly all pupils in Europe
studied at least one foreign language as part of their compulsory education, the only exception being Ireland
, where primary and secondary schoolchildren learn both Irish
and English, but neither is considered a foreign language (although Irish pupils do study a third European language). On average in Europe, at the start of foreign language teaching, learners have lessons for three to four hours a week. Compulsory lessons in a foreign language normally start at the end of primary school or the start of secondary school
. In Luxembourg
, Norway
and Malta
, however, the first foreign language is studied at age six, and in Flanders
at age 10. In Wales
, all children are taught Welsh
from the first year of primary school. The Welsh language is also compulsory up to the age of 16, although a formal GCSE qualification is optional.
In some countries, learners have lessons taken entirely in a foreign language: for example, more than half of European countries with a minority/regional language community use partial immersion to teach both the minority and the state language.
In 1995, the European Commission
's White Paper on Education and Training emphasised the importance of schoolchildren learning at least two foreign languages before upper secondary education. The Lisbon Summit of 2000 defined languages as one of the five key skills.
Despite the high rate of foreign language teaching in schools, the number of adults claiming to speak a foreign language is generally lower than might be expected. This is particularly true of native English speakers: in 2004 a British
survey showed that only one in 10 UK
workers could speak a foreign language and less than 5% could count to 20 in a second language. In 2001, a European Commission survey found that 65.9% of people in the UK spoke only their native tongue.
Since the 1990s, the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
has tried to standardise the learning of languages across Europe.
suggested that speaking a second language could increase an average worker's salary by £ 3000 (€ 3 300) a year, or £145 000 (€ 159 000)in a lifetime. Further results showed that nine out of 10 British companies thought their businesses could benefit from better language skills. Studies show that a person that is bilingual or multilingual, can make a greater salary than a computer programmer or engineer because they can use their abilities in foreign language to obtain success in a wide range of career paths. Also due to the increase of international population, a multilingual person can easily communicate and translate to perspective viewers.
Also in 2004, a study by University College London
(UCL) examined the brains of 105 people who could speak more than one language. The study found that people who learned a second language when younger had denser grey matter
than those who learned one later. Grey matter is the part of the brain where information is processed.
Other research has shown that early exposure to a second language increases divergent thinking strategies, helping not only in language-related tasks, but also in areas such as math. Children early on have different ways of expressing themselves, such that they better understand there is more than one way to look at a problem and that there is more than one solution.
Richards and Schmidt (2002: 472) provide this information about second language:
"In a broad sense, any language learned after one has learnt one's native language [is called second language]. However, when contrasted with foreign language, the term refers more narrowly to a language that plays a major role in a particular country or region though it may not be the first language of many people who use it. For example, the learning of English by immigrants in the US or the learning of Catalan by speakers of Spanish in Catalonia (an autonomous region of Spain) are cases of second (not foreign) language learning, because those languages are necessary for survival in those societies. English is also a second language for many people in countries like Nigeria, India, Singapore and the Philippines (plus Spanish), because English fulfils many important functions in those countries (including the business of education and government) and Learning English is necessary to be successful within that context. (Some people in these countries however may acquire English as a first language, if it is the main language used at home)."
They also define a "foreign language" as a language which is not the native language of large numbers of people in a particular country of region, is not used as a medium of instruction in schools and is not widely used as a medium of communication in government, media etc. They note that foreign languages are typically taught as school subjects for the purpose of communicating with foreigners or for reading printed materials in the language (Richards and Schmidt, 2002: 206).
Crystal (2003) notes that "first language" is distinguishable from "second language" (a language other that one's mother-tongue used for a special purpose, e.g. for education, government) distinguishable in turn from "foreign language (where no such special status is implied). He also notes that the distinction between the latter two is not universally recognised (especially not in the USA).
Stern (1983) believes that there is today consensus that a necessary distinction is to be made between a non-native language learnt and used within one country to which the term 'second language' has been applied and a non-native language learnt and used with reference to a speech community outside national or territorial boundaries to which the term 'foreign language' is commonly given. He argues that while the distinction between 'second' and 'foreign' has a certain justification, it is perhaps less important that it has sometimes been made out to be and it may be misleading. He notes that the distinction became popular after World War II in international organisations, such as UNESCO, in order to meet nationalist susceptibilities in discussions on language questions.
Fasold and Connor-Linton (2006), Falk (1978) and Hudson (2000) provide similar definitions for the two terms. O'Grady et al. (1384) don't mention the exact terms 'second' and 'foreign' language, but they emphasise on the role of learning environment in teaching non-native languages.
So, the distinction between 'second language' and 'foreign language' is a geographical and environmental distinction. We can mention 'second language situation' and 'foreign language situation' as two situations of learning, not two kinds of languages. So a foreign language is not always a foreign language and a second language is not always a second language. Since the distinction is geographical, the two situations (learning second language and learning foreign language) can be considered as a continuum. At one extreme, we may find learners learning without external help and direction purely from exposure to the non-native language through living in the target language environment (second language learning) and at the other we find learners learning the non-native language exclusively in language teaching setting and classrooms (foreign language learning).
A 'second language' usually has official status or a recognised function within a country which a foreign language has not and furthermore these two different situations frequently have important consequences to which attention has been drawn in some books. For example, Persian is a second language for Kurdish people, but not vice versa, because there is no Kurdish environment for Persian speakers who are learning Kurdish. On the other hand, English is a foreign language for both groups, because there is no contact between Kurdish and Persian people with English people. However, if an Iranian person goes to USA, then English becomes a second language for him or her. Thus British immigrants to Iran learn Persian as a second language and Persian speakers study English in Britain as a second language. In Kermanshah or Kurdistan, we can speak of learning Kurdish by Persian speakers as a second rather than foreign language.
The purposes of second language learning are often different from foreign language learning. Second language is needed for full participation in the political and economic life of the nation, because it is frequently the official language or one of two or more recognised languages. It may be the language needed for education. Among the purposes of foreign language learning are traveling abroad, communication with native speakers, reading foreign literature or scientific and technical works.
There are some major differences between foreign and second language teaching and learning. In second language learning, one can receive input for learning both inside and outside the classroom. He or she can readily put to use what is learned, as can the child learning its first language, so lots of naturalistic practice is possible.
Second language learners are usually more successful in developing non-native language skills and what is learned may be essential for getting along in the community, so motivation is stronger.
Acculturation that is a main aspect of learning a language is easier in the case of second language learning and the emotional role of language (as opposed to communicational role) is easier to use for learners.
The major characteristics of the planned condition of the classroom in the case of foreign language learning as opposed to natural conditions of second language learning are:
1. Psycho-social demands of classroom: The school classroom requires adjustment of the learner to the group processes, classroom discipline and procedures. The learner receives only a limited amount of individual attention. Regular attendance is required.
2. Preselected language data: The teacher generally introduces preselected target language items. Spontaneity is limited. A planned curriculum is followed with the teacher attempting to realize certain goals regarding the language that is to be learned.
3. Grammatical rules presented. The teacher may describe a rule in the native language to explain a grammatical structure. The teacher is expected to understand, assimilate and later apply the abstract rule.
4. Unreal limited situations. Situations for language use in the classroom are limited in variety and scope as compared to those outside of the classroom. The situations which are employed are often simulated.
5. Educational aids and assignments. In order to assist learning and achieve teacher goals, books, writing or a language lab, for example, may be used. Work assignments may be given to be completed in the class or at home.
There are some other issues in teaching and learning foreign language and second language including the type of motivation and the distinction between 'learning' and 'acquisition' that I will discuss them in separate parts.
There is often a distinction between acquisition and learning in linguistic and pedagogic literature. Children are described as 'acquiring' their native language, where there is no previous information and knowledge in their mind. On the other hand, adults are said to 'learn' a non-native language. Acquisition is viewed as a natural, unconscious, untaught and probably unteachable process, while learning is somewhat artificial, usually conscious and possibly dependent on instruction and study.
The distinction between acquisition and learning can be used in this discussion, because the general conditions in the case of second language offer opportunities for acquisition, because it is informal, free, undirected or naturalistic. On the other hand, educational treatment in the case of foreign language may offer opportunities mainly for learning.
Nevertheless, acquisition can take place in the case of foreign language learning and learning can take place in the case of second language learning. For example, immigrants to the US can attend language teaching classes in the target language environment. On the other hand, foreign language learners that are far from target language environment can sometimes acquire some points for example by listening to foreign radio, reading literature etc.
Language
Language may refer either to the specifically human capacity for acquiring and using complex systems of communication, or to a specific instance of such a system of complex communication...
indigenous
Indigenous language
An indigenous language or autochthonous language is a language that is native to a region and spoken by indigenous peoples but has been reduced to the status of a minority language. This language would be from a linguistically distinct community that has been settled in the area for many generations...
to another country. It is also a language not spoken in the native country of the person referred to, i.e. an English speaker living in Japan can say that Japanese
Japanese language
is a language spoken by over 130 million people in Japan and in Japanese emigrant communities. It is a member of the Japonic language family, which has a number of proposed relationships with other languages, none of which has gained wide acceptance among historical linguists .Japanese is an...
is a foreign language to him or her. These two characterisations do not exhaust the possible definitions, however, and the label is occasionally applied in ways that are variously misleading or factually inaccurate.
Multilingualism
Multilingualism is the act of using, or promoting the use of, multiple languages, either by an individual speaker or by a community of speakers. Multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers in the world's population. Multilingualism is becoming a social phenomenon governed by the needs of...
. These children can be said to have two, three or more mother tongues: neither language is foreign to that child, even if one language is a foreign language for the vast majority of people in the child's birth country. For example, a child learning English from her English
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
father and Japanese at school in Japan can speak both English and Japanese, but neither is a foreign language to her.
Foreign language education and ability
- See main article: Language educationLanguage educationLanguage education is the teaching and learning of a foreign or second language. Language education is a branch of applied linguistics.- Need for language education :...
Most schools around the world teach at least one foreign language. By 1998 nearly all pupils in Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
studied at least one foreign language as part of their compulsory education, the only exception being Ireland
Ireland
Ireland is an island to the northwest of continental Europe. It is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island on Earth...
, where primary and secondary schoolchildren learn both Irish
Irish language
Irish , also known as Irish Gaelic, is a Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family, originating in Ireland and historically spoken by the Irish people. Irish is now spoken as a first language by a minority of Irish people, as well as being a second language of a larger proportion of...
and English, but neither is considered a foreign language (although Irish pupils do study a third European language). On average in Europe, at the start of foreign language teaching, learners have lessons for three to four hours a week. Compulsory lessons in a foreign language normally start at the end of primary school or the start of secondary school
Secondary school
Secondary school is a term used to describe an educational institution where the final stage of schooling, known as secondary education and usually compulsory up to a specified age, takes place...
. In Luxembourg
Luxembourg
Luxembourg , officially the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg , is a landlocked country in western Europe, bordered by Belgium, France, and Germany. It has two principal regions: the Oesling in the North as part of the Ardennes massif, and the Gutland in the south...
, Norway
Norway
Norway , officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic unitary constitutional monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Jan Mayen, and the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard and Bouvet Island. Norway has a total area of and a population of about 4.9 million...
and Malta
Malta
Malta , officially known as the Republic of Malta , is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily, east of Tunisia and north of Libya, with Gibraltar to the west and Alexandria to the east.Malta covers just over in...
, however, the first foreign language is studied at age six, and in Flanders
Flemish Community
The term Flemish Community has two distinct, though related, meanings:...
at age 10. In Wales
Wales
Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain, bordered by England to its east and the Atlantic Ocean and Irish Sea to its west. It has a population of three million, and a total area of 20,779 km²...
, all children are taught Welsh
Welsh language
Welsh is a member of the Brythonic branch of the Celtic languages spoken natively in Wales, by some along the Welsh border in England, and in Y Wladfa...
from the first year of primary school. The Welsh language is also compulsory up to the age of 16, although a formal GCSE qualification is optional.
In some countries, learners have lessons taken entirely in a foreign language: for example, more than half of European countries with a minority/regional language community use partial immersion to teach both the minority and the state language.
In 1995, the European Commission
European Commission
The European Commission is the executive body of the European Union. The body is responsible for proposing legislation, implementing decisions, upholding the Union's treaties and the general day-to-day running of the Union....
's White Paper on Education and Training emphasised the importance of schoolchildren learning at least two foreign languages before upper secondary education. The Lisbon Summit of 2000 defined languages as one of the five key skills.
Despite the high rate of foreign language teaching in schools, the number of adults claiming to speak a foreign language is generally lower than might be expected. This is particularly true of native English speakers: in 2004 a British
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
survey showed that only one in 10 UK
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
workers could speak a foreign language and less than 5% could count to 20 in a second language. In 2001, a European Commission survey found that 65.9% of people in the UK spoke only their native tongue.
Since the 1990s, the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment, abbreviated as CEFR, is a guideline used to describe achievements of learners of foreign languages across Europe and, increasingly, in other countries...
has tried to standardise the learning of languages across Europe.
Pronunciation
Research into foreign language learning
In 2004 a report by the Michel Thomas Language Centre in the United KingdomUnited Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
suggested that speaking a second language could increase an average worker's salary by £ 3000 (€ 3 300) a year, or £145 000 (€ 159 000)in a lifetime. Further results showed that nine out of 10 British companies thought their businesses could benefit from better language skills. Studies show that a person that is bilingual or multilingual, can make a greater salary than a computer programmer or engineer because they can use their abilities in foreign language to obtain success in a wide range of career paths. Also due to the increase of international population, a multilingual person can easily communicate and translate to perspective viewers.
Also in 2004, a study by University College London
University College London
University College London is a public research university located in London, United Kingdom and the oldest and largest constituent college of the federal University of London...
(UCL) examined the brains of 105 people who could speak more than one language. The study found that people who learned a second language when younger had denser grey matter
Grey matter
Grey matter is a major component of the central nervous system, consisting of neuronal cell bodies, neuropil , glial cells and capillaries. Grey matter contains neural cell bodies, in contrast to white matter, which does not and mostly contains myelinated axon tracts...
than those who learned one later. Grey matter is the part of the brain where information is processed.
Other research has shown that early exposure to a second language increases divergent thinking strategies, helping not only in language-related tasks, but also in areas such as math. Children early on have different ways of expressing themselves, such that they better understand there is more than one way to look at a problem and that there is more than one solution.
Foreign language vs. Second language
There are not any major differences in different definitions that different writers have provided about foreign language and second language, although not many of them differentiate these two terms. The distinction between acronyms TESL (Teaching of English as a Second Language) and TEFL (Teaching of English as a Foreign Language) shows some attention of different researchers to the concepts of foreign language and second language.Richards and Schmidt (2002: 472) provide this information about second language:
"In a broad sense, any language learned after one has learnt one's native language [is called second language]. However, when contrasted with foreign language, the term refers more narrowly to a language that plays a major role in a particular country or region though it may not be the first language of many people who use it. For example, the learning of English by immigrants in the US or the learning of Catalan by speakers of Spanish in Catalonia (an autonomous region of Spain) are cases of second (not foreign) language learning, because those languages are necessary for survival in those societies. English is also a second language for many people in countries like Nigeria, India, Singapore and the Philippines (plus Spanish), because English fulfils many important functions in those countries (including the business of education and government) and Learning English is necessary to be successful within that context. (Some people in these countries however may acquire English as a first language, if it is the main language used at home)."
They also define a "foreign language" as a language which is not the native language of large numbers of people in a particular country of region, is not used as a medium of instruction in schools and is not widely used as a medium of communication in government, media etc. They note that foreign languages are typically taught as school subjects for the purpose of communicating with foreigners or for reading printed materials in the language (Richards and Schmidt, 2002: 206).
Crystal (2003) notes that "first language" is distinguishable from "second language" (a language other that one's mother-tongue used for a special purpose, e.g. for education, government) distinguishable in turn from "foreign language (where no such special status is implied). He also notes that the distinction between the latter two is not universally recognised (especially not in the USA).
Stern (1983) believes that there is today consensus that a necessary distinction is to be made between a non-native language learnt and used within one country to which the term 'second language' has been applied and a non-native language learnt and used with reference to a speech community outside national or territorial boundaries to which the term 'foreign language' is commonly given. He argues that while the distinction between 'second' and 'foreign' has a certain justification, it is perhaps less important that it has sometimes been made out to be and it may be misleading. He notes that the distinction became popular after World War II in international organisations, such as UNESCO, in order to meet nationalist susceptibilities in discussions on language questions.
Fasold and Connor-Linton (2006), Falk (1978) and Hudson (2000) provide similar definitions for the two terms. O'Grady et al. (1384) don't mention the exact terms 'second' and 'foreign' language, but they emphasise on the role of learning environment in teaching non-native languages.
So, the distinction between 'second language' and 'foreign language' is a geographical and environmental distinction. We can mention 'second language situation' and 'foreign language situation' as two situations of learning, not two kinds of languages. So a foreign language is not always a foreign language and a second language is not always a second language. Since the distinction is geographical, the two situations (learning second language and learning foreign language) can be considered as a continuum. At one extreme, we may find learners learning without external help and direction purely from exposure to the non-native language through living in the target language environment (second language learning) and at the other we find learners learning the non-native language exclusively in language teaching setting and classrooms (foreign language learning).
A 'second language' usually has official status or a recognised function within a country which a foreign language has not and furthermore these two different situations frequently have important consequences to which attention has been drawn in some books. For example, Persian is a second language for Kurdish people, but not vice versa, because there is no Kurdish environment for Persian speakers who are learning Kurdish. On the other hand, English is a foreign language for both groups, because there is no contact between Kurdish and Persian people with English people. However, if an Iranian person goes to USA, then English becomes a second language for him or her. Thus British immigrants to Iran learn Persian as a second language and Persian speakers study English in Britain as a second language. In Kermanshah or Kurdistan, we can speak of learning Kurdish by Persian speakers as a second rather than foreign language.
The purposes of second language learning are often different from foreign language learning. Second language is needed for full participation in the political and economic life of the nation, because it is frequently the official language or one of two or more recognised languages. It may be the language needed for education. Among the purposes of foreign language learning are traveling abroad, communication with native speakers, reading foreign literature or scientific and technical works.
There are some major differences between foreign and second language teaching and learning. In second language learning, one can receive input for learning both inside and outside the classroom. He or she can readily put to use what is learned, as can the child learning its first language, so lots of naturalistic practice is possible.
Second language learners are usually more successful in developing non-native language skills and what is learned may be essential for getting along in the community, so motivation is stronger.
Acculturation that is a main aspect of learning a language is easier in the case of second language learning and the emotional role of language (as opposed to communicational role) is easier to use for learners.
The major characteristics of the planned condition of the classroom in the case of foreign language learning as opposed to natural conditions of second language learning are:
1. Psycho-social demands of classroom: The school classroom requires adjustment of the learner to the group processes, classroom discipline and procedures. The learner receives only a limited amount of individual attention. Regular attendance is required.
2. Preselected language data: The teacher generally introduces preselected target language items. Spontaneity is limited. A planned curriculum is followed with the teacher attempting to realize certain goals regarding the language that is to be learned.
3. Grammatical rules presented. The teacher may describe a rule in the native language to explain a grammatical structure. The teacher is expected to understand, assimilate and later apply the abstract rule.
4. Unreal limited situations. Situations for language use in the classroom are limited in variety and scope as compared to those outside of the classroom. The situations which are employed are often simulated.
5. Educational aids and assignments. In order to assist learning and achieve teacher goals, books, writing or a language lab, for example, may be used. Work assignments may be given to be completed in the class or at home.
There are some other issues in teaching and learning foreign language and second language including the type of motivation and the distinction between 'learning' and 'acquisition' that I will discuss them in separate parts.
There is often a distinction between acquisition and learning in linguistic and pedagogic literature. Children are described as 'acquiring' their native language, where there is no previous information and knowledge in their mind. On the other hand, adults are said to 'learn' a non-native language. Acquisition is viewed as a natural, unconscious, untaught and probably unteachable process, while learning is somewhat artificial, usually conscious and possibly dependent on instruction and study.
The distinction between acquisition and learning can be used in this discussion, because the general conditions in the case of second language offer opportunities for acquisition, because it is informal, free, undirected or naturalistic. On the other hand, educational treatment in the case of foreign language may offer opportunities mainly for learning.
Nevertheless, acquisition can take place in the case of foreign language learning and learning can take place in the case of second language learning. For example, immigrants to the US can attend language teaching classes in the target language environment. On the other hand, foreign language learners that are far from target language environment can sometimes acquire some points for example by listening to foreign radio, reading literature etc.
See also
- Language Resource CenterLanguage Resource CenterThe Language Resource Center Program of the U.S. Department of Education, administered by the under of the Higher Education Act, funds grants to American universities for establishing, strengthening, and operating centers that serve as resources for improving the nation's capacity for teaching...
- International auxiliary languageInternational auxiliary languageAn international auxiliary language or interlanguage is a language meant for communication between people from different nations who do not share a common native language...
- First languageFirst languageA first language is the language a person has learned from birth or within the critical period, or that a person speaks the best and so is often the basis for sociolinguistic identity...
- Language educationLanguage educationLanguage education is the teaching and learning of a foreign or second language. Language education is a branch of applied linguistics.- Need for language education :...
- Language schoolLanguage schoolA language school is a school where one studies a foreign language. Classes at a language school are usually geared towards, but not limited to, communicative competence in a foreign language...
- MultilingualismMultilingualismMultilingualism is the act of using, or promoting the use of, multiple languages, either by an individual speaker or by a community of speakers. Multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers in the world's population. Multilingualism is becoming a social phenomenon governed by the needs of...
- Official languageOfficial languageAn official language is a language that is given a special legal status in a particular country, state, or other jurisdiction. Typically a nation's official language will be the one used in that nation's courts, parliament and administration. However, official status can also be used to give a...
- Second languageSecond languageA second language or L2 is any language learned after the first language or mother tongue. Some languages, often called auxiliary languages, are used primarily as second languages or lingua francas ....
- Teaching English as a foreign languageTeaching English as a foreign languageTeaching English as a foreign language refers to teaching English to students whose first language is not English. TEFL usually occurs in the student's own country, either within the state school system, or privately, e.g., in an after-hours language school or with a tutor...
- Language exchangeLanguage exchangeTandem language learning is a method of language learning based on mutual language exchange between tandem partners...
- Learning by teachingLearning by teachingIn professional education, learning by teaching designates currently the method by Jean-Pol Martin that allows pupils and students to prepare and to teach lessons, or parts of lessons...
- Fremdsprachen und HochschuleFremdsprachen und HochschuleFremdsprachen und Hochschule is a triannual academic journal published by the German Association of University Language Centers.-History:...
- Foreign language influences in EnglishForeign language influences in EnglishWhile many words enter English as slang, not all do. Some words are adopted from other languages; some are mixtures of existing words , and some are new coinages made of roots from dead languages: e.g. thanatopsis. No matter the origin, though, words seldom, if ever, are immediately accepted into...
Sources
- Crystal, D. (2003), A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, 5th edition, London: Blackwell.
- Falk, J.S. (1978), Linguistics and Language, USA: John Wiley & Sons.
- Fasold, R.W. and Connor-Linton J. (2006), An Introduction to Language and Linguistics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Hudson, G. (2000), Essential Introductory Linguistics, London: Blackwell.
- Richards, J.C. and Schmidt R. (2002), Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, 3rd edition, London: Longman.
- Steinberg, D. D. (1991), Psycholinguistics: Language, Mind and World, London: Longman.
- Stern, H.H. (1983), Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.