Formosan languages
Encyclopedia
The Formosan languages are the languages of the indigenous peoples
of Taiwan
. Taiwanese aborigines (those recognized by the government) currently comprise about 2% of the island's population. However, far fewer can still speak their ancestral language, after centuries of language shift
. Of the approximately 26 languages of the Taiwanese aborigines, at least ten are extinct
, another four (perhaps five) are moribund, and several others are to some degree endangered.
The aboriginal languages of Taiwan
have significance in historical linguistics
, since in all likelihood Taiwan was the place of origin of the entire Austronesian language
family. According to linguist Robert Blust
the Formosan languages form nine of the ten principal branches of the Austronesian language family, while the one remaining principal branch contains nearly 1,200 Malayo-Polynesian languages
found outside of Taiwan. Although linguists disagree with some details of Blust's analysis, a broad consensus has coalesced around the conclusion that the Austronesian languages originated in Taiwan. This theory has been strengthened by recent studies in human population genetics.
. In recent decades the Republic of China
government started an aboriginal reappreciation program that included the reintroduction of Formosan first language
in Taiwanese schools. However, the results of this initiative have been disappointing.
Formosan tribes, since our knowledge of these is often sketchy at best. Frequently cited examples of Formosan languages are given below, but the list should not be considered exhaustive.
Also in Taiwan, but not Formosan:
or VOS
), with the exception of some Northern Formosan languages
such as Thao
, Saisiyat
, and Pazih, possibly due to influence from Chinese.
Li (1998) lists the word order
s of several Formosan languages.
The following table lists reflxes of Proto-Austronesian *ʀ in various Formosan languages (Blust 2009:582).
Lenition patterns include (Blust 2009:604-605):
Tanan Rukai
is the Formosan language with the large number of phonemes with 23 consonants and 4 vowels containing length contrast, while Kanakanabu
and Saaroa
have the least number of phonemes with 13 consonants and 4 vowels (Blust 2009:165).
Taiwanese aborigines
Taiwanese aborigines is the term commonly applied in reference to the indigenous peoples of Taiwan. Although Taiwanese indigenous groups hold a variety of creation myths, recent research suggests their ancestors may have been living on the islands for approximately 8,000 years before major Han...
of Taiwan
Taiwan
Taiwan , also known, especially in the past, as Formosa , is the largest island of the same-named island group of East Asia in the western Pacific Ocean and located off the southeastern coast of mainland China. The island forms over 99% of the current territory of the Republic of China following...
. Taiwanese aborigines (those recognized by the government) currently comprise about 2% of the island's population. However, far fewer can still speak their ancestral language, after centuries of language shift
Language shift
Language shift, sometimes referred to as language transfer or language replacement or assimilation, is the progressive process whereby a speech community of a language shifts to speaking another language. The rate of assimilation is the percentage of individuals with a given mother tongue who speak...
. Of the approximately 26 languages of the Taiwanese aborigines, at least ten are extinct
Extinct language
An extinct language is a language that no longer has any speakers., or that is no longer in current use. Extinct languages are sometimes contrasted with dead languages, which are still known and used in special contexts in written form, but not as ordinary spoken languages for everyday communication...
, another four (perhaps five) are moribund, and several others are to some degree endangered.
The aboriginal languages of Taiwan
Taiwan
Taiwan , also known, especially in the past, as Formosa , is the largest island of the same-named island group of East Asia in the western Pacific Ocean and located off the southeastern coast of mainland China. The island forms over 99% of the current territory of the Republic of China following...
have significance in historical linguistics
Historical linguistics
Historical linguistics is the study of language change. It has five main concerns:* to describe and account for observed changes in particular languages...
, since in all likelihood Taiwan was the place of origin of the entire Austronesian language
Austronesian languages
The Austronesian languages are a language family widely dispersed throughout the islands of Southeast Asia and the Pacific, with a few members spoken on continental Asia that are spoken by about 386 million people. It is on par with Indo-European, Niger-Congo, Afroasiatic and Uralic as one of the...
family. According to linguist Robert Blust
Robert Blust
Robert A. Blust is a prominent linguist in several areas, including historical linguistics, lexicography and ethnology. Blust specializes in the Austronesian languages and has made major contributions to the field of Austronesian linguistics....
the Formosan languages form nine of the ten principal branches of the Austronesian language family, while the one remaining principal branch contains nearly 1,200 Malayo-Polynesian languages
Malayo-Polynesian languages
The Malayo-Polynesian languages are a subgroup of the Austronesian languages, with approximately 385.5 million speakers. These are widely dispersed throughout the island nations of Southeast Asia and the Pacific Ocean, with a smaller number in continental Asia...
found outside of Taiwan. Although linguists disagree with some details of Blust's analysis, a broad consensus has coalesced around the conclusion that the Austronesian languages originated in Taiwan. This theory has been strengthened by recent studies in human population genetics.
Recent history
All Formosan languages are slowly being replaced by the culturally dominant Standard ChineseStandard Chinese
Standard Chinese, or Modern Standard Chinese, also known as Mandarin or Putonghua, is the official language of the People's Republic of China and Republic of China , and is one of the four official languages of Singapore....
. In recent decades the Republic of China
Republic of China
The Republic of China , commonly known as Taiwan , is a unitary sovereign state located in East Asia. Originally based in mainland China, the Republic of China currently governs the island of Taiwan , which forms over 99% of its current territory, as well as Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu and other minor...
government started an aboriginal reappreciation program that included the reintroduction of Formosan first language
First language
A first language is the language a person has learned from birth or within the critical period, or that a person speaks the best and so is often the basis for sociolinguistic identity...
in Taiwanese schools. However, the results of this initiative have been disappointing.
Classification
There are various classifications of Formosan languages. These deny that the Formosan languages form a coherent language family apart from Austronesian.List of languages
It is often difficult to decide where to draw the boundary between a language and a dialect, causing some minor disagreement among scholars regarding the inventory of Formosan languages. There is even more uncertainty regarding many extinct or assimilatedCultural assimilation
Cultural assimilation is a socio-political response to demographic multi-ethnicity that supports or promotes the assimilation of ethnic minorities into the dominant culture. The term assimilation is often used with regard to immigrants and various ethnic groups who have settled in a new land. New...
Formosan tribes, since our knowledge of these is often sketchy at best. Frequently cited examples of Formosan languages are given below, but the list should not be considered exhaustive.
Living languages
- AtayalAtayal languageThe Atayal language is spoken by the Atayal people of Taiwan. Squliq and C’uli’ are two major dialects...
(high dialect diversity, sometimes considered separate languages) - BununBunun languageThe Bunun language is spoken by the Bunun people of Taiwan. It is one of the Formosan languages, a geographic group of Austronesian languages, and is subdivided in five dialects: Isbukun, Takbunuaz, Takivatan, Takibaka and Takituduh. Isbukun, the dominant dialect, is mainly spoken in the south of...
(high dialect diversity) - AmisAmis languageAmis is the Formosan language of the Amis Ami, an indigenous tribal people living along the east coast of Taiwan . It is spoken from Hualien in the north to Taitung in the south, with another population near the southern end of the island, though the northern varieties are sometimes considered a...
- KanakanabuKanakanabu languageKanakanabu is a Southern Tsouic language is spoken by the Kanakanabu, an indigenous people of Taiwan . It is a Formosan language of the Austronesian family....
(moribund) - KavalanKavalan languageKavalan was formerly spoken in the Northeast coast area of Taiwan by the Kavalan people . It is an East Formosan language of the Austronesian family....
(listed in some sources as moribund, though further analysis may show otherwise) - PaiwanPaiwan languagePaiwan is a native language of Taiwan, spoken by the Paiwan people, one tribe of the Taiwanese aborigines. Paiwan is a Formosan language of the Austronesian language family...
- SaisiyatSaisiyat languageSaisiyat is the language of the Saisiyat, a tribe of indigenous people on Taiwan . It is a Formosan language of the Austronesian family...
- PuyumaPuyuma languageThe Puyuma language is the language of the Puyuma people, a tribe of indigenous people on Taiwan . It is a divergent Formosan language of the Austronesian family...
- RukaiRukai languageRukai is the mother tongue of the Rukai, one indigenous people of Taiwan . It is a divergent Formosan language of the Austronesian languages language family. There are some 10,000 speakers, some monolingual. There are several dialects, of which Mantauran, Tona, and Maga are divergent.Rukai is...
(high dialect diversity) - SaaroaSaaroa languageSaaroa is a Southern Tsouic language is spoken by the Saaroa, a tribe of indigenous people on Taiwan . It is a Formosan language of the Austronesian family.-Language evolution:...
(moribund) - SeediqSeediq languageSeediq is an Atayalic language spoken in the mountains of Northern Taiwan by the Seediq and Truku people. There are 4,750 speakers out of a total of 25,000 ethnic members .-Subdivisions:Seediq consists of three main dialects...
( Truku) - ThaoThao languageThao , also known as Sao, is the language of the Thao people, a tribe of Taiwanese aborigines in the region of Sun Moon Lake in central Taiwan. In 2000 there were approximately 5 or 6 speakers living in Dehua village , all but one of whom were over the age of sixty...
(moribund) - TsouTsou languageTsou is a divergent Austronesian language spoken by the Tsou people of Taiwan.-Classification:Tsou has traditionally been considered part of a Tsouic branch of Austronesian...
Also in Taiwan, but not Formosan:
- Yami ( Tao)
Extinct languages
- BabuzaBabuza languageBabuza is a Formosan language of the Babuza and Taokas, indigenous peoples of Taiwan. It is related to or perhaps descended from Favorlang, attested from the 16th century.Babuza was once spoken along much of the western coast of Taiwan...
- BasayBasay languageBasay was a Formosan language spoken around modern-day Taipei in northern Taiwan by the Basay, Qauqaut, and Trobiawan peoples. Trobiawan, Linaw, and Qauqaut were other dialects ....
- FavorlangFavorlang languageFavorlang is an extinct Formosan language closely related to Babuza.Although Favorlang is considered by Taiwanese linguist Paul Jen-kuei Li to be a separate language, it is nevertheless very closely related to Babuza. In fact, the name Favorlang is derived from Babuza...
- Hoanya
- Ketagalan
- Makatao
- PazehPazeh languagePazeh is the language of the Pazeh, a Taiwanese aboriginal people). It is a Formosan language of the Austronesian languages language family. Kulun was a dialect. There was only one remaining native speaker of Pazeh proper, 96-year-old Pan Jin-yu. Since her death, however, the language is extinct...
- Papora
- Taivoan
- Taokas
- SirayaSiraya languageSiraya is a Formosan language spoken until the end of the 19th century by the indigenous Siraya people of Taiwan. Dialects of Siraya included Taivoa and Makatao....
Syntax
Most Formosan languages display verb-initial syntax (VSOVSO
VSO is a three-letter acronym with multiple meanings, as described below:* Voluntary Service Overseas, an international development charity* Valdosta Southern Railroad...
or VOS
Vos
Vos or VOS may refer to:In computing:* Hitachi VOS, a mainframe computer operating system by Hitachi Data Systems* Stratus VOS, a fault-tolerant computer operating system, developed by Stratus...
), with the exception of some Northern Formosan languages
Northern Formosan languages
The Northern Formosan languages is a proposed grouping of Formosan languages that includes the Atayalic languages, the Western Plains languages , and the Northwest Formosan languages .The Northern Formosan subgroup was first proposed by Paul Jen-kuei Li in 1985...
such as Thao
Thao language
Thao , also known as Sao, is the language of the Thao people, a tribe of Taiwanese aborigines in the region of Sun Moon Lake in central Taiwan. In 2000 there were approximately 5 or 6 speakers living in Dehua village , all but one of whom were over the age of sixty...
, Saisiyat
Saisiyat language
Saisiyat is the language of the Saisiyat, a tribe of indigenous people on Taiwan . It is a Formosan language of the Austronesian family...
, and Pazih, possibly due to influence from Chinese.
Li (1998) lists the word order
Word order
In linguistics, word order typology refers to the study of the order of the syntactic constituents of a language, and how different languages can employ different orders. Correlations between orders found in different syntactic subdomains are also of interest...
s of several Formosan languages.
- Atayal: VSO, VOS
- Tsou: VOS
- Rukai: VSO, VOS
- Bunun: VSO
- Amis: VOS, VSO
- Saisiyat: VS, SVO
- Kavalan: VOS
- Thao: VSO, SVO
- Pazih: VOS, SVO
- Paiwan: VSO, VOS
- Puyuma: VSO
Sound changes
The following table lists reflxes of Proto-Austronesian *j in various Formosan languages (Blust 2009:572).| Language | Reflex |
|---|---|
| Tsou | Ø |
| Kanakanabu | l |
| Saaroa | ɬ (-ɬ- only) |
| Puyuma | d |
| Paiwan | d |
| Bunun | Ø |
| Atayal | r (in Squliq), g (sporadic), s (sporadic) |
| Sediq | y (-y- only), c (-c only) |
| Pazeh | z ([dz]) (-z- only), d (-d only) |
| Saisiyat | z ([ð]) |
| Thao | z ([ð]) |
| Amis | n |
| Kavalan | n |
| Siraya | n |
The following table lists reflxes of Proto-Austronesian *ʀ in various Formosan languages (Blust 2009:582).
| Language | Reflex |
|---|---|
| Paiwan | Ø |
| Bunun | l |
| Kavalan | ʀ (contrastive uvular rhotic) |
| Basay | l |
| Amis | l |
| Atayal | g; r (before /i/) |
| Sediq | r |
| Pazeh | x |
| Taokas | l |
| Thao | lh (voiceless lateral) |
| Saisiyat | L (retroflex flap) |
| Bashiic (extra-Formosan) | y |
Lenition patterns include (Blust 2009:604-605):
- *b, *d in Proto-Austronesian
- *b > f, *d > c, r in Tsou
- *b > v, *d > d in Puyuma
- *b > v, *d > d, r in Paiwan
- *b > b, *d > r in Saisiyat
- *b > f, *d > s in Thao
- *b > v, *d > r in Yami (extra-Formosan)
Tanan Rukai
Rukai language
Rukai is the mother tongue of the Rukai, one indigenous people of Taiwan . It is a divergent Formosan language of the Austronesian languages language family. There are some 10,000 speakers, some monolingual. There are several dialects, of which Mantauran, Tona, and Maga are divergent.Rukai is...
is the Formosan language with the large number of phonemes with 23 consonants and 4 vowels containing length contrast, while Kanakanabu
Kanakanabu language
Kanakanabu is a Southern Tsouic language is spoken by the Kanakanabu, an indigenous people of Taiwan . It is a Formosan language of the Austronesian family....
and Saaroa
Saaroa language
Saaroa is a Southern Tsouic language is spoken by the Saaroa, a tribe of indigenous people on Taiwan . It is a Formosan language of the Austronesian family.-Language evolution:...
have the least number of phonemes with 13 consonants and 4 vowels (Blust 2009:165).
Distributions
Li (2001) lists the geographical homelands for the following Formosan languages.- Bunun: Hsinyi County
- Paiwan: Ailiao RiverAiliao RiverThe Ailiao River is a tributary of the Kaoping River in Taiwan. It flows through Kaohsiung City and Pingtung County for 76 km....
, near the foot of the mountains - Tsou: southwestern parts of central Taiwan; YushanYushan-Mainland China:* Yushan County , a county of Shangrao City in the northeast of Jiangxi* Yushan District , Ma'anshan, AnhuiTowns* Yushan, Jinxiang County , in Jinxiang County, ShandongWritten as "玉山镇":* Yushan, Jian'ou, in Jian'ou City, Fujian...
(oral traditions) - Saisiyat and Kulon: somewhere between Tatu RiverTatu RiverThe Wu River , also known as the Dadu River is a river in Taiwan. It flows through Taichung City, Changhua County and Nantou County for 116km....
and Tachia RiverTachia RiverThe Dajia River is a river in north-central Taiwan. It flows through Taichung City for 124 km.The sources of the Dajia are: Hsuehshan and Nanhu Mountain in the Central Mountain Range...
not far from the coast - Thao: Choshui River
- Siraya: Chianan PlainChianan PlainThe Chianan Plain or Jianan Plain is an alluvial plain located at the central-southern region of western Taiwan. It is the largest plain of the island, and lies in Tainan City and Chiayi County/Chiayi City, from which the name of the plain derived. It also includes some portions of Yunlin County,...
s - Makatau: Pingtung
- Qauqaut: mid-stream of Takiri River (Liwuhsi in Chinese)
See also
- Demographics of Taiwan#Aboriginal
- Tsou languageTsou languageTsou is a divergent Austronesian language spoken by the Tsou people of Taiwan.-Classification:Tsou has traditionally been considered part of a Tsouic branch of Austronesian...
for an example of the unusual phonotactics of the Formosan languages - Sinckan writing
- Naming customs of Taiwanese aborigines
- Austronesian personal pronouns#Formosan languages
Further reading
- Li, Paul Jen-kuei (2004). "Basic Vocabulary for Formosan Languages and Dialects." In Li, Paul Jen-kuei. Selected Papers on Formosan Languages, vol. 2. Taipei, Taiwan: Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica.
- Tsuchida, S. (2003). Kanakanavu texts (Austronesian Formosan). [Osaka?: Endangered Languages of the Pacific Rim].
- Zeitoun, E. (2002). Nominalization in Formosan languages. Taipei: Institute of Linguistics (Preparatory Office), Academia Sinica.
- Mackay, G. L. (1893). Chinese Romanized dictionary of the Formosan vernacular. Shanghai: Printed at the Presbyterian Mission Press.
- Happart, G., & Hedhurst, W. H. (1840). Dictionary of the Favorlang dialect of the Formosan language. Batavia: printed at Parapattan.