Francisco de Toledo, Count of Oropesa
Encyclopedia
Francisco Álvarez de Toledo, Count of Oropesa (July 10, 1515 – 1584) was Spanish viceroy of Peru
from November 26, 1569 to September 23, 1581.
, the son of the third Count of Oropesa; through his mother's side he was a third cousin of Emperor Charles V
. In 1535 Toledo joined the Order of Alcantara
, a religious-military order. For nearly twenty years, he apparently served the emperor in the army in Flanders and Italy. He was a close friend of Emperor Charles V, and was even present at his death in 1558.
after serving as a steward in the royal court.
During his rule, Toledo took charge of the government and implemented many reforms. He centralized colonial governmental functions and laid the foundation for the future administration of the viceroyalty. He established royal authority and Spanish dominance in the colony. He broke the power of the encomenderos
, reducing them to obedient servants of the crown. He has been called "one of the great administrators of human times."
He worked hard to convert the Indigenous and provide them with religious training. Toledo added new laws and royal decrees regarding the Indians and their lands, and he gathered the natives into villages, or reducciones. He promulgated laws that applied to both Indians and Spanish alike. He tried to adapt the political and social structures of the Incas
to life in the viceroyalty. He also reduced the old system of mita
, which had transformed from mandatory public service into a form of forced native labor. Under his reforms of the mita, no more than one seventh of the male population of a village could be conscripted, they could not be forced to work far from their native villages, and they were entitled to compensation for their labor. These reforms later were called the Toledo Reforms
.
Toledo assigned Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa
the task of writing a chronicle of prehispanic times in Peru by compiling information given by some of the older survivors from that time. Sarmiento's work is considered an invaluable source of information for that period. Toledo sent the account to the King, in hopes that a museum would be founded.
He established the Inquisition
in Peru in 1570. Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera
founded the city of Córdoba (in modern-day Argentina) on July 6, 1573. Tarija
and Cochabamba
(both in modern Bolivia) were founded in 1574.
A detailed census was taken describing the different ethnic groups and their economic status. Toledo made an extensive tour of inspection of the colony, traveling over 8,000 km in more than five years. He was the only viceroy of Peru to undertake such a fact-finding mission. "His tour of inspection had convinced him that there were many abuses of power which needed correction and many flaws in the governmental machinery which needed repair."
He built fortifications on the coast for protection against pirates. He also established la Armada del Mar del Sur (the Southern Fleet) in the port of El Callao. (Sir Francis Drake
was ravaging the coast of Peru in 1579.)
He built bridges and improved the safety of travel in the viceroyalty. The first coins minted for Peru (and indeed for South America) appeared between 1568 and 1570. The silver from mines at Potosí circulated around the world.
in 1571 for rebellion is the one great stain on the record of Viceroy Toledo. There are eyewitness accounts claiming that many clerics, convinced of Tupac Amaru's innocence, begged the viceroy that he be sent to Spain for trial. However, other claims have been made to the contrary — that Tupac Amaru was indeed in rebellion, that Toledo had tried peaceful means to settle differences, that three of his ambassadors to the Inca were murdered, and that Tupac Amaru subsequently raised an army to resist the colonial army. In this view, there was nothing arbitrary or unjust about the execution of the Inca leader.
Philip II, however, disapproved of the execution. Toledo also made enemies through his reforms. The previous (interim) viceroy, Lope García de Castro
, was one of them. García de Castro was now a member of the Council of the Indies, from which position he opposed most of Toledo's reforms. Some of the Spanish in Peru opposed the viceroy because of the loss of some of their privileges. Nevertheless, the royal revenue from Peru sent to Spain increased. The books were balanced for the first time in fifteen years, tax collection was regularized and enforced, and revenues from the silver mines increased.
Peru
Peru , officially the Republic of Peru , is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean....
from November 26, 1569 to September 23, 1581.
Early years
He was born at Oropesa, SpainOropesa, Spain
Oropesa is a Spanish town in the province of Toledo. The town of 2,872 is famous for its castle-turned-parador, which was built in 1402. The parador was formerly the residence of the Toledo family of nobles...
, the son of the third Count of Oropesa; through his mother's side he was a third cousin of Emperor Charles V
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor
Charles V was ruler of the Holy Roman Empire from 1519 and, as Charles I, of the Spanish Empire from 1516 until his voluntary retirement and abdication in favor of his younger brother Ferdinand I and his son Philip II in 1556.As...
. In 1535 Toledo joined the Order of Alcantara
Order of Alcántara
The Order of Alcántara , also called the Knights of St. Julian, was originally a military order of León, founded in 1166 and confirmed by Pope Alexander III in 1177.-Alcántara:...
, a religious-military order. For nearly twenty years, he apparently served the emperor in the army in Flanders and Italy. He was a close friend of Emperor Charles V, and was even present at his death in 1558.
Viceory of Peru
Toledo became the fifth viceroy of Peru in 1569. He was appointed viceroy by Philip IIPhilip II of Spain
Philip II was King of Spain, Portugal, Naples, Sicily, and, while married to Mary I, King of England and Ireland. He was lord of the Seventeen Provinces from 1556 until 1581, holding various titles for the individual territories such as duke or count....
after serving as a steward in the royal court.
During his rule, Toledo took charge of the government and implemented many reforms. He centralized colonial governmental functions and laid the foundation for the future administration of the viceroyalty. He established royal authority and Spanish dominance in the colony. He broke the power of the encomenderos
Encomienda
The encomienda was a system that was employed mainly by the Spanish crown during the colonization of the Americas to regulate Native American labor....
, reducing them to obedient servants of the crown. He has been called "one of the great administrators of human times."
He worked hard to convert the Indigenous and provide them with religious training. Toledo added new laws and royal decrees regarding the Indians and their lands, and he gathered the natives into villages, or reducciones. He promulgated laws that applied to both Indians and Spanish alike. He tried to adapt the political and social structures of the Incas
Inca civilization
The Andean civilizations made up a loose patchwork of different cultures that developed from the highlands of Colombia to the Atacama Desert. The Andean civilizations are mainly based on the cultures of Ancient Peru and some others such as Tiahuanaco. The Inca Empire was the last sovereign...
to life in the viceroyalty. He also reduced the old system of mita
Mita (Inca)
Mit'a was mandatory public service in the society of the Inca Empire. Historians use the hispanicized term mita to distinguish the system as it was modified by the Spanish, under whom it became a form of legal servitude which in practise bordered slavery.Mit'a was effectively a form of tribute to...
, which had transformed from mandatory public service into a form of forced native labor. Under his reforms of the mita, no more than one seventh of the male population of a village could be conscripted, they could not be forced to work far from their native villages, and they were entitled to compensation for their labor. These reforms later were called the Toledo Reforms
Toledo Reforms
The Toledo Reforms were a series of reforms implemented by Francisco de Toledo, Count of Oropesa to Spain's policies in the Viceroyalty of Peru....
.
Toledo assigned Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa
Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa
Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa was a Spanish explorer, author, historian, astronomer, and scientist. His birthplace is not certain and may have been Pontevedra, in Galicia, where his paternal family originated or Alcalá de Henares in Castile, where he later is known to have studied...
the task of writing a chronicle of prehispanic times in Peru by compiling information given by some of the older survivors from that time. Sarmiento's work is considered an invaluable source of information for that period. Toledo sent the account to the King, in hopes that a museum would be founded.
He established the Inquisition
Inquisition
The Inquisition, Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis , was the "fight against heretics" by several institutions within the justice-system of the Roman Catholic Church. It started in the 12th century, with the introduction of torture in the persecution of heresy...
in Peru in 1570. Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera
Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera
Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera was a Spanish Conquistador, early colonial governor over much of what today is northwestern Argentina, and founder of the city of Córdoba.-Life and times:Cabrera was born in Seville, Spain, in 1528...
founded the city of Córdoba (in modern-day Argentina) on July 6, 1573. Tarija
Tarija, Bolivia
Tarija or San Bernardo de la Frontera de Tarixa is a city in southern Bolivia. Founded in 1574, Tarija is both the capital and largest city within the Tarija Department, with an airport offering regular service to primary Bolivian cities, as well as a regional bus terminal with domestic and...
and Cochabamba
Cochabamba
Cochabamba is a city in central Bolivia, located in a valley bearing the same name in the Andes mountain range. It is the capital of the Cochabamba Department and is the fourth largest city in Bolivia with an urban population of 608,276 and a metropolitan population of more than 1,000,000 people...
(both in modern Bolivia) were founded in 1574.
A detailed census was taken describing the different ethnic groups and their economic status. Toledo made an extensive tour of inspection of the colony, traveling over 8,000 km in more than five years. He was the only viceroy of Peru to undertake such a fact-finding mission. "His tour of inspection had convinced him that there were many abuses of power which needed correction and many flaws in the governmental machinery which needed repair."
He built fortifications on the coast for protection against pirates. He also established la Armada del Mar del Sur (the Southern Fleet) in the port of El Callao. (Sir Francis Drake
Francis Drake
Sir Francis Drake, Vice Admiral was an English sea captain, privateer, navigator, slaver, and politician of the Elizabethan era. Elizabeth I of England awarded Drake a knighthood in 1581. He was second-in-command of the English fleet against the Spanish Armada in 1588. He also carried out the...
was ravaging the coast of Peru in 1579.)
He built bridges and improved the safety of travel in the viceroyalty. The first coins minted for Peru (and indeed for South America) appeared between 1568 and 1570. The silver from mines at Potosí circulated around the world.
Execution of Tupac Amaru
The claim has been made that the unjust execution of the Inca Túpac AmaruTúpac Amaru
Túpac Amaru, also called Thupa Amaro , was the last indigenous leader of the Inca state in Peru.-Accession:...
in 1571 for rebellion is the one great stain on the record of Viceroy Toledo. There are eyewitness accounts claiming that many clerics, convinced of Tupac Amaru's innocence, begged the viceroy that he be sent to Spain for trial. However, other claims have been made to the contrary — that Tupac Amaru was indeed in rebellion, that Toledo had tried peaceful means to settle differences, that three of his ambassadors to the Inca were murdered, and that Tupac Amaru subsequently raised an army to resist the colonial army. In this view, there was nothing arbitrary or unjust about the execution of the Inca leader.
Philip II, however, disapproved of the execution. Toledo also made enemies through his reforms. The previous (interim) viceroy, Lope García de Castro
Lope García de Castro
Lope García de Castro was a Spanish colonial administrator, member of the Council of the Indies and of the Audiencias of Panama and Lima...
, was one of them. García de Castro was now a member of the Council of the Indies, from which position he opposed most of Toledo's reforms. Some of the Spanish in Peru opposed the viceroy because of the loss of some of their privileges. Nevertheless, the royal revenue from Peru sent to Spain increased. The books were balanced for the first time in fifteen years, tax collection was regularized and enforced, and revenues from the silver mines increased.
Recall, return to Spain, imprisonment and death
In spite of this, Toledo was blamed for the viceregal books not being balanced and taxes not being sent back to Spain. He was recalled in 1581 and taken back to Spain. There he was jailed until 1584, when he died of natural causes.External links
Fairly long biography- Short biography
- Toledo, Francisco de, INFORMACIONES DE DON FRANCISCO DE TOLEDO, VIREY DEL PERÚ