Franco-Turkish War
Encyclopedia
The Franco-Turkish War or Cilicia War (French
: La campagne de Cilicie, Turkish
: Güney Cephesi - the southern front) was a series of conflicts fought between France (the French Colonial Forces
and the French Armenian Legion
) and Turkish National Forces directed by Turkish Grand National Assembly from May 1920-October 1921 in the aftermath of World War I
. French interest in the region resulted from the Sykes-Picot Agreement
and the subsequent French-Armenian Agreement (1916)
that led to the establishment of Armenian forces under the French Army.
region (Cilicia) was apparent from Napoleon′s 1798-1801 campaign in Egypt and Syria and became more intense when French capitalists acquired Sultan Abdülhamid II′s Mercimek Farm as part payment of Ottoman debts. This large (1100 km² (424.7 sq mi)) farm occupied a strip from the ports of Yumurtalık
and Karataş
to the vicinity of Kozan
and İmamoğlu
.
After the armistice of Mudros
, the French Army had moved into Çukurova in accordance with the secret Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916, which gave France control of Ottoman Syria and southern Anatolia
, including the key strategic locations of the fertile plain of Çukurova, the ports of Mersin
and İskenderun
(Alexandretta), and the copper mines in Ergani
. On the other hand, the fertile lands of Mesopotamia and the vilayet of Mosul (where oil fields were suspected) were priorities for the British. According to the agreement, the British would look after the cities of Antep, Maraş
and Urfa until the French arrived in the southern Anatolian regions allocated to them in the agreement.
The French-Armenian agreement
—agreeing support of the nationalists of the Armenian national liberation movement by the allies during World War I
—was signed on 27 October 1916. French foreign minister Aristide Briand
used it to obtain troops for French commitments. It was planned to establish the French Armenian Legion
under the command of General Edmund Allenby. Armenians fought in Palestine and Syria, and also in Cilicia after the Armistice of Mudros
. The aim in constituting the Legion was to allow Armenia to participate in the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire
, particularly in southern Anatolia.
On 18 March 1919, two French gunboats brought troops to the Black Sea ports of Zonguldak
and Karadeniz Ereğli
to command the Ottoman coal mining region. Because of the resistance they faced during their one-year stay in the region, French troops begin to withdraw from Karadeniz Ereğli on 8 June 1920. They continued to pursue their occupation in Zonguldak, where they occupied the whole city on 18 June 1920.
aimed to support the strategic goals of the allies.
A French brigade entered Istanbul
on 12 November 1918. On 8 February 1919, French general Franchet d'Esperey—commander-in-chief of allied occupation forces in the Ottoman Empire—arrived in Constantinople to coordinate the occupation government.
The city of Bursa—a former Ottoman capital of central importance in northwest Anatolia—was also held by French forces for a brief period before the great summer offensive of the Greek army in 1920, at which time that city fell to the Greeks.
The first landing took place on 17 November 1918 at Mersin
with roughly 15,000 men, mainly volunteers from the French Armenian Legion, accompanied by 150 French officers. The first goals of that expeditionary force were to occupy ports and dismantle the Ottoman administration. On 19 November, Tarsus
was occupied in order to secure the surroundings and prepare for the establishment of headquarters in Adana
.
After the occupation of Cilicia proper at the end of 1918, French troops occupied the Ottoman provinces of Antep
, Maraş
and Urfa
in southern Anatolia at the end of 1919, taking them over from British troops as agreed.
At the eastern tip of the occupation zone in the south, the city of Mardin
was also occupied for one day (on 21 November 1919) until the evening, when the French thought it better to abandon the occupation attempt.
France designated Édouard Brémond governor of the French occupation zone in the south from January 1 1919-September 4 1920, and Julien Dufieux from September 1920-23 December 1921.
In the regions they occupied, the French encountered immediate resistance from the Turkish majority, especially because they had associated themselves with Armenian objectives. The French soldiers were foreign to the region and were using Armenian militia to acquire their intelligence. Turkish nationals had been in cooperation with Arab tribes in this area. Compared to the Greek threat, the French seemed less dangerous to Mustafa Kemal
, who suggested that, if the Greek threat could be overcome, the French would not resist, especially as they wanted to settle in Syria.
The resistance of the Turkish forces was a big surprise to France. They blamed the British for their failure to curb the power of the local forces to resist. The strategic goal of opening a southern front by moving Armenians against the Turkish National forces was a failure after the defeat of the Greek-British forces to the west.
On 1 November 1919, two days after the French take-over of Maraş, the Sütçü İmam Incident
sowed the seeds of tension in the city. This incident is named after the defender of three Turkish women who were being harassed and molested in the street by auxiliaries of the French Armenian Legion. Sütçü İmam shot one of the molesters in the skirmish and had to go into hiding. The incident triggered a series of events that led the Turkish majority of Maraş to rise against the occupation forces and culminated in wholescale urban warfare two months later. On 11 February 1920, after 22 days of the Battle of Maraş
, the French occupation troops, followed by the local Armenian community, found themselves forced to evacuate Maraş by the resistance and assaults of the Turkish revolutionaries.
Maraş militia forces contributed further to the war effort by taking part in the recapture of other centers in the region, forcing the French forces to retreat gradually, town by town.
.
signed by representatives of the French government and the Turkish Grand National Assembly on 20 October 1921, and finalized with Armistice of Mudanya
.
and Dörtyol
. On 5 January they left Adana
, Ceyhan
and Tarsus
. The evacuation was completed on 7 January with the last troops leaving Osmaniye
.
In the early stages of the Greco-Turkish War, French and Greek troops jointly crossed the Meriç River and occupied the town of Uzunköprü
in eastern Thrace and the railway route from there to the station of Hadımköy near Çatalca
on the outskirts of Constantinople. In September 1922, at the end of that war, during the Greek pull-out after the advance of Turkish revolutionaries, French forces withdrew from their positions near the Dardanelles
, but the British seemed prepared to hold their ground. The British government issued a request for military support from its colonies. This was refused, and the French leaving the British on the straits signaled that the Allies were unwilling to intervene in aid of Greece. Greek troops and the French withdrew beyond the Meriç River.
, chiefly on account of breaking Triple Entente
solidarity and signing a separate agreement with the Turkish National Movement
. The Treaty of Ankara did not resolve the problems in connection with the sanjak of Alexandretta. However, positive Franco-Turkish relations were maintained, at least until the question of Alexandretta was solved, by applying the principle of defending territorial integrity and national independence. French policy supporting the Turkish independence movement were set back during the Conference of Lausanne
on the abolition of the Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire
. French objections during the discussions on abolition were perceived as contravening full Turkish independence and sovereignty. Furthermore, the fact that the sanjak of Alexandretta remained under French control also contributed to the tension between the two countries; according to the Misak-ı Millî
, they should have been included within Turkish national borders. The positive attitude developed with the Treaty of Ankara remained friendly, if limited.
The Ottoman debts were cleared by the young Republic of Turkey in line with the Treaty of Lausanne
. Attempts at modifying the ethnic structure of the region in favour of the Armenian minority by introducing new settlers also played a role.
French language
French is a Romance language spoken as a first language in France, the Romandy region in Switzerland, Wallonia and Brussels in Belgium, Monaco, the regions of Quebec and Acadia in Canada, and by various communities elsewhere. Second-language speakers of French are distributed throughout many parts...
: La campagne de Cilicie, Turkish
Turkish language
Turkish is a language spoken as a native language by over 83 million people worldwide, making it the most commonly spoken of the Turkic languages. Its speakers are located predominantly in Turkey and Northern Cyprus with smaller groups in Iraq, Greece, Bulgaria, the Republic of Macedonia, Kosovo,...
: Güney Cephesi - the southern front) was a series of conflicts fought between France (the French Colonial Forces
French Colonial Forces
The French Colonial Forces , commonly called La Coloniale, was a general designation for the military forces that garrisoned in the French colonial empire from the late 17th century until 1960. They were recruited from mainland France or from the French settler and indigenous populations of the...
and the French Armenian Legion
French Armenian Legion
The Armenian Legion, established with the French-Armenian Agreement , was a foreign legion unit within French Army. The Armenian legion was established under the goals of the Armenian national liberation movement and was an armed unit besides the Armenian volunteer units and Armenian militia during...
) and Turkish National Forces directed by Turkish Grand National Assembly from May 1920-October 1921 in the aftermath of World War I
Aftermath of World War I
The fighting in World War I ended in western Europe when the Armistice took effect at 11:00 am GMT on November 11, 1918, and in eastern Europe by the early 1920s. During and in the aftermath of the war the political, cultural, and social order was drastically changed in Europe, Asia and Africa,...
. French interest in the region resulted from the Sykes-Picot Agreement
Sykes-Picot Agreement
The Sykes–Picot Agreement of 1916 was a secret agreement between the governments of the United Kingdom and France, with the assent of Imperial Russia, defining their respective spheres of influence and control in Western Asia after the expected downfall of the Ottoman Empire during World War I...
and the subsequent French-Armenian Agreement (1916)
French-Armenian Agreement (1916)
The French-Armenian Agreement of October 27, 1916 was the political and military accord regarding the support of Armenian nationalist on the side of the allies in World War I. The agreement was reported to the Talat Pasha, Ottoman Empire, and a copy of this information was found in the Ottoman...
that led to the establishment of Armenian forces under the French Army.
Background
French interest in the ÇukurovaÇukurova
Çukurova , historically known as Cilicia, is a geographic, economic and cultural region in south-central Turkey, covering the provinces of Mersin, Adana, Osmaniye and Hatay...
region (Cilicia) was apparent from Napoleon′s 1798-1801 campaign in Egypt and Syria and became more intense when French capitalists acquired Sultan Abdülhamid II′s Mercimek Farm as part payment of Ottoman debts. This large (1100 km² (424.7 sq mi)) farm occupied a strip from the ports of Yumurtalık
Yumurtalik
Yumurtalık is a small city and a district in Adana Province of Turkey. It is a Mediterranean port at a distance of about from Adana center. Yumurtalık's population does not exceed 5,000 in winter, but in summer, it rises to 30 to 40,000 people since many inhabitants of Adana have holiday homes here...
and Karataş
Karatas
Karataş is a small city and a district in Adana Province, on the Mediterranean coast of Turkey, 47 km from the city of Adana, between the rivers of Seyhan and Ceyhan, the Pyramos of Antiquity...
to the vicinity of Kozan
Kozan
Kozan may refer to:*Kozan, Hiroshima in Japan*Kozan, Adana in Turkey*Kozan, Shaft in Iran*Kozan, a village in Northern Cyprus...
and İmamoğlu
Imamoglu
İmamoğlu is a city and district in Adana Province in the Mediterranean region of Turkey, a small agricultural community on a small plain in the hills between the cities of Adana and Kozan, 45 km from Adana, 27 km from Kozan. The city has a population of 20,593 .-External links:* *...
.
Agreements
Armistice of Mudros
The Armistice of Moudros , concluded on 30 October 1918, ended the hostilities in the Middle Eastern theatre between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies of World War I...
, the French Army had moved into Çukurova in accordance with the secret Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916, which gave France control of Ottoman Syria and southern Anatolia
Anatolia
Anatolia is a geographic and historical term denoting the westernmost protrusion of Asia, comprising the majority of the Republic of Turkey...
, including the key strategic locations of the fertile plain of Çukurova, the ports of Mersin
Mersin
-Mersin today:Today, Mersin is a large city spreading out along the coast, with Turkey's second tallest skyscraper , huge hotels, an opera house, expensive real estate near the sea or up in the hills, and many other modern urban...
and İskenderun
Iskenderun
İskenderun is a city and urban district in the province of Hatay on the Mediterranean coast of Turkey. The current mayor is Yusuf Hamit Civelek .-Names:...
(Alexandretta), and the copper mines in Ergani
Ergani
Ergani, formerly known as Arghni or Arghana, is a district of Diyarbakır Province of Turkey. The mayor is Fesih Yalçın .-Çayönü:Near the village of Sesverenpınar, among the Hilar rocks Çayönü hill was first settled in c. 7500 BC, and was continuously inhabited until 5000 BC...
. On the other hand, the fertile lands of Mesopotamia and the vilayet of Mosul (where oil fields were suspected) were priorities for the British. According to the agreement, the British would look after the cities of Antep, Maraş
Maras
In ancient Latvia, Māras or Māras diena was a festival, celebrated on August 15, held in honor of Māra, the Latvian goddess. It marked the midpoint between Jāņi and Miķeļi...
and Urfa until the French arrived in the southern Anatolian regions allocated to them in the agreement.
The French-Armenian agreement
French-Armenian Agreement (1916)
The French-Armenian Agreement of October 27, 1916 was the political and military accord regarding the support of Armenian nationalist on the side of the allies in World War I. The agreement was reported to the Talat Pasha, Ottoman Empire, and a copy of this information was found in the Ottoman...
—agreeing support of the nationalists of the Armenian national liberation movement by the allies during World War I
Allies of World War I
The Entente Powers were the countries at war with the Central Powers during World War I. The members of the Triple Entente were the United Kingdom, France, and the Russian Empire; Italy entered the war on their side in 1915...
—was signed on 27 October 1916. French foreign minister Aristide Briand
Aristide Briand
Aristide Briand was a French statesman who served eleven terms as Prime Minister of France during the French Third Republic and received the 1926 Nobel Peace Prize.- Early life :...
used it to obtain troops for French commitments. It was planned to establish the French Armenian Legion
French Armenian Legion
The Armenian Legion, established with the French-Armenian Agreement , was a foreign legion unit within French Army. The Armenian legion was established under the goals of the Armenian national liberation movement and was an armed unit besides the Armenian volunteer units and Armenian militia during...
under the command of General Edmund Allenby. Armenians fought in Palestine and Syria, and also in Cilicia after the Armistice of Mudros
Armistice of Mudros
The Armistice of Moudros , concluded on 30 October 1918, ended the hostilities in the Middle Eastern theatre between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies of World War I...
. The aim in constituting the Legion was to allow Armenia to participate in the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire
Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire
The Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire was a political event that occurred after World War I. The huge conglomeration of territories and peoples formerly ruled by the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire was divided into several new nations.The partitioning was planned from the early days of the war,...
, particularly in southern Anatolia.
Black Sea landings
After the armistice of Mudros, the first thing the French military did was to control the strategically important Ottoman coal mines in which French capital held significant stakes. The goal was both to take control of this energy source and to meet French military needs. It also prevented the distribution of coal in Anatolia, which could be used in activities to support insurgency.On 18 March 1919, two French gunboats brought troops to the Black Sea ports of Zonguldak
Zonguldak
Zonguldak is a city and the capital of Zonguldak Province in the Black Sea region of Turkey. Its population, according to the 2009 census, was 108,792. It is an important port on the Black Sea because of the coal mining in Zonguldak Province...
and Karadeniz Ereğli
Karadeniz Eregli
Karadeniz Ereğli is a city and district in Zonguldak Province of Turkey, on the Black Sea shore at the mouth of the Kılıçsu River. Population is 98 545 as of 2009. The mayor is Halil Posbıyık .-Facts:...
to command the Ottoman coal mining region. Because of the resistance they faced during their one-year stay in the region, French troops begin to withdraw from Karadeniz Ereğli on 8 June 1920. They continued to pursue their occupation in Zonguldak, where they occupied the whole city on 18 June 1920.
Istanbul and Thrace operations
The main operations in ThraceThrace
Thrace is a historical and geographic area in southeast Europe. As a geographical concept, Thrace designates a region bounded by the Balkan Mountains on the north, Rhodope Mountains and the Aegean Sea on the south, and by the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara on the east...
aimed to support the strategic goals of the allies.
A French brigade entered Istanbul
Istanbul
Istanbul , historically known as Byzantium and Constantinople , is the largest city of Turkey. Istanbul metropolitan province had 13.26 million people living in it as of December, 2010, which is 18% of Turkey's population and the 3rd largest metropolitan area in Europe after London and...
on 12 November 1918. On 8 February 1919, French general Franchet d'Esperey—commander-in-chief of allied occupation forces in the Ottoman Empire—arrived in Constantinople to coordinate the occupation government.
The city of Bursa—a former Ottoman capital of central importance in northwest Anatolia—was also held by French forces for a brief period before the great summer offensive of the Greek army in 1920, at which time that city fell to the Greeks.
Cilicia Campaign (Cilicia war)
| Battle | General | Date |
|---|---|---|
| Maraş | Ali Fuat Pasha | 20 Jan - 10 Feb 1920 |
| Urfa | Ali Saip Bey | 9 Feb - 11 Apr 1920 |
| Antep Defense | Kilic Ali Bey | 1 Apr 1920 - 9 Feb 1921 |
| Siege of Antep | Sefik Ozdemir Bey | 5 August 1920 - 9 Feb 1921 |
The first landing took place on 17 November 1918 at Mersin
Mersin
-Mersin today:Today, Mersin is a large city spreading out along the coast, with Turkey's second tallest skyscraper , huge hotels, an opera house, expensive real estate near the sea or up in the hills, and many other modern urban...
with roughly 15,000 men, mainly volunteers from the French Armenian Legion, accompanied by 150 French officers. The first goals of that expeditionary force were to occupy ports and dismantle the Ottoman administration. On 19 November, Tarsus
Tarsus (city)
Tarsus is a historic city in south-central Turkey, 20 km inland from the Mediterranean Sea. It is part of the Adana-Mersin Metropolitan Area, the fourth-largest metropolitan area in Turkey with a population of 2.75 million...
was occupied in order to secure the surroundings and prepare for the establishment of headquarters in Adana
Adana
Adana is a city in southern Turkey and a major agricultural and commercial center. The city is situated on the Seyhan River, 30 kilometres inland from the Mediterranean, in south-central Anatolia...
.
After the occupation of Cilicia proper at the end of 1918, French troops occupied the Ottoman provinces of Antep
Gaziantep Province
Gaziantep Province is a province in south-central Turkey. Its capital is the city of Gaziantep which had a population of 853,513 as of 2000. Its neighbours are Adıyaman at north, Şanlıurfa at east, Syria and Kilis at south, Hatay at southwest, Osmaniye at west and Kahramanmaraş at northwest.An...
, Maraş
Kahramanmaras Province
Kahramanmaraş is a province of Turkey. Its provincial capital is Kahramanmaraş city, the traffic code is 46.-Districts:Kahramanmaraş province is divided into 10 districts :*Afşin*Andırın*Çağlayancerit*Ekinözü*Elbistan*Göksun*Kahramanmaraş...
and Urfa
Sanliurfa Province
Şanlıurfa Province or simply Urfa Province is a province in Southeast Anatolia, Turkey. The city of Şanlıurfa is the capital of the province which bears its name. The population is 1,663,371 ....
in southern Anatolia at the end of 1919, taking them over from British troops as agreed.
At the eastern tip of the occupation zone in the south, the city of Mardin
Mardin
Mardin is a city in southeastern Turkey. The capital of Mardin Province, it is known for its Arabic-like architecture, and for its strategic location on a rocky mountain overlooking the plains of northern Syria.-History:...
was also occupied for one day (on 21 November 1919) until the evening, when the French thought it better to abandon the occupation attempt.
France designated Édouard Brémond governor of the French occupation zone in the south from January 1 1919-September 4 1920, and Julien Dufieux from September 1920-23 December 1921.
In the regions they occupied, the French encountered immediate resistance from the Turkish majority, especially because they had associated themselves with Armenian objectives. The French soldiers were foreign to the region and were using Armenian militia to acquire their intelligence. Turkish nationals had been in cooperation with Arab tribes in this area. Compared to the Greek threat, the French seemed less dangerous to Mustafa Kemal
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was an Ottoman and Turkish army officer, revolutionary statesman, writer, and the first President of Turkey. He is credited with being the founder of the Republic of Turkey....
, who suggested that, if the Greek threat could be overcome, the French would not resist, especially as they wanted to settle in Syria.
The resistance of the Turkish forces was a big surprise to France. They blamed the British for their failure to curb the power of the local forces to resist. The strategic goal of opening a southern front by moving Armenians against the Turkish National forces was a failure after the defeat of the Greek-British forces to the west.
On 1 November 1919, two days after the French take-over of Maraş, the Sütçü İmam Incident
Sütçü Imam Incident
The Sütçü İmam incident also known as Uzun Oluk incident is a term used in modern Turkish historiography to refer to the purportedly first armed action against the French occupying forces in Marash on October 31, 1919...
sowed the seeds of tension in the city. This incident is named after the defender of three Turkish women who were being harassed and molested in the street by auxiliaries of the French Armenian Legion. Sütçü İmam shot one of the molesters in the skirmish and had to go into hiding. The incident triggered a series of events that led the Turkish majority of Maraş to rise against the occupation forces and culminated in wholescale urban warfare two months later. On 11 February 1920, after 22 days of the Battle of Maraş
Battle of Maras
The Battle of Marash was a battle that took place in the early winter of 1920 between the French forces occupying the city of Marash in the Ottoman Empire and the Turkish National Forces linked to Mustafa Kemal Pasha...
, the French occupation troops, followed by the local Armenian community, found themselves forced to evacuate Maraş by the resistance and assaults of the Turkish revolutionaries.
Maraş militia forces contributed further to the war effort by taking part in the recapture of other centers in the region, forcing the French forces to retreat gradually, town by town.
Cilicia Peace Treaty
The Cilicia Peace Treaty between France and the Turkish National Movement was signed on 9 March 1921. It was intended to end the Franco-Turkish war, but failed to do so and was replaced in October 1921 with the Treaty of AnkaraTreaty of Ankara (1921)
The Ankara Agreement was signed on October 20, 1921 between France and the Grand National Assembly of Turkey...
.
End of hostilities
The conflicts officially ended with the Treaty of AnkaraTreaty of Ankara (1921)
The Ankara Agreement was signed on October 20, 1921 between France and the Grand National Assembly of Turkey...
signed by representatives of the French government and the Turkish Grand National Assembly on 20 October 1921, and finalized with Armistice of Mudanya
Armistice of Mudanya
The Armistice of Mudanya was an agreement between Turkey on the one hand, and Italy, France and Britain on the other hand, signed in the Ottoman town of Mudanya on 11 October 1922....
.
Withdrawal and population movements
The French forces withdrew from the occupation zone in the first days of 1922, about ten months before the Armistice of Mudanya. Beginning on 3 January, French troops evacuated MersinMersin
-Mersin today:Today, Mersin is a large city spreading out along the coast, with Turkey's second tallest skyscraper , huge hotels, an opera house, expensive real estate near the sea or up in the hills, and many other modern urban...
and Dörtyol
Dörtyol
Dörtyol is a port city and oil terminus at the head of the Gulf of İskenderun, near the easternmost point of the Mediterranean coast. Dörtyol is located 26 km north of the city of Iskenderun in the province of Hatay in southeastern Turkey.-Geography:...
. On 5 January they left Adana
Adana
Adana is a city in southern Turkey and a major agricultural and commercial center. The city is situated on the Seyhan River, 30 kilometres inland from the Mediterranean, in south-central Anatolia...
, Ceyhan
Ceyhan
Ceyhan is a city in southeast Turkey and with 105,000 inhabitants it is the second largest city of Adana Province after the capital Adana. Ceyhan is the transportation hub for Middle Eastern, Central Asian and Russian oil and natural gas. It is situated on the Ceyhan River, from which it takes...
and Tarsus
Tarsus (city)
Tarsus is a historic city in south-central Turkey, 20 km inland from the Mediterranean Sea. It is part of the Adana-Mersin Metropolitan Area, the fourth-largest metropolitan area in Turkey with a population of 2.75 million...
. The evacuation was completed on 7 January with the last troops leaving Osmaniye
Osmaniye
-External links:...
.
In the early stages of the Greco-Turkish War, French and Greek troops jointly crossed the Meriç River and occupied the town of Uzunköprü
Uzunköprü
Uzunköprü is a small town and a district of Edirne Province in northwestern Turkey.It is on the railway line from Istanbul towards Sofia, Belgrade and western Europe, and a frontier post on the Greek border.- Long Bridge :...
in eastern Thrace and the railway route from there to the station of Hadımköy near Çatalca
Çatalca
Çatalca is a city and a rural district in Istanbul, Turkey. It is in Thrace, on the ridge between the Marmara and the Black Sea. Most people living in Çatalca are either farmers or those visiting vacation homes. Many families from Istanbul come to Çatalca during weekends to hike in the forests or...
on the outskirts of Constantinople. In September 1922, at the end of that war, during the Greek pull-out after the advance of Turkish revolutionaries, French forces withdrew from their positions near the Dardanelles
Dardanelles
The Dardanelles , formerly known as the Hellespont, is a narrow strait in northwestern Turkey connecting the Aegean Sea to the Sea of Marmara. It is one of the Turkish Straits, along with its counterpart the Bosphorus. It is located at approximately...
, but the British seemed prepared to hold their ground. The British government issued a request for military support from its colonies. This was refused, and the French leaving the British on the straits signaled that the Allies were unwilling to intervene in aid of Greece. Greek troops and the French withdrew beyond the Meriç River.
Aftermath
France had better relations with the Turkish nationals during the Turkish War of IndependenceTurkish War of Independence
The Turkish War of Independence was a war of independence waged by Turkish nationalists against the Allies, after the country was partitioned by the Allies following the Ottoman Empire's defeat in World War I...
, chiefly on account of breaking Triple Entente
Triple Entente
The Triple Entente was the name given to the alliance among Britain, France and Russia after the signing of the Anglo-Russian Entente in 1907....
solidarity and signing a separate agreement with the Turkish National Movement
Turkish National Movement
The Turkish National Movement encompasses the political and military activities of the Turkish revolutionaries which resulted in the creation and shaping of the Republic of Turkey, as a consequence of the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I....
. The Treaty of Ankara did not resolve the problems in connection with the sanjak of Alexandretta. However, positive Franco-Turkish relations were maintained, at least until the question of Alexandretta was solved, by applying the principle of defending territorial integrity and national independence. French policy supporting the Turkish independence movement were set back during the Conference of Lausanne
Conference of Lausanne
The Conference of Lausanne was a conference held in Lausanne, Switzerland during 1922 and 1923. Its purpose was the negotiation of a treaty to replace the Treaty of Sèvres, which, under the new government of Kemal Pasha, was no longer recognised by Turkey....
on the abolition of the Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire
Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire
Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire were contracts between the Ottoman Empire and European powers, particularly France. Turkish capitulations, or ahdnames, were generally bilateral acts whereby definite arrangements were entered into by each contracting party towards the other, not mere...
. French objections during the discussions on abolition were perceived as contravening full Turkish independence and sovereignty. Furthermore, the fact that the sanjak of Alexandretta remained under French control also contributed to the tension between the two countries; according to the Misak-ı Millî
Misak-i Millî
Misak-ı Millî is the set of six important decisions made by the last term of the Ottoman Parliament. Parliament met on 28 January 1920 and published their decisions on 12 February 1920...
, they should have been included within Turkish national borders. The positive attitude developed with the Treaty of Ankara remained friendly, if limited.
The Ottoman debts were cleared by the young Republic of Turkey in line with the Treaty of Lausanne
Treaty of Lausanne
The Treaty of Lausanne was a peace treaty signed in Lausanne, Switzerland on 24 July 1923, that settled the Anatolian and East Thracian parts of the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire. The treaty of Lausanne was ratified by the Greek government on 11 February 1924, by the Turkish government on 31...
. Attempts at modifying the ethnic structure of the region in favour of the Armenian minority by introducing new settlers also played a role.
External links
- Cilicia Campaign (1919-1921): birth of modern Turkey Site about French Cilicia Campaign, with documents (1920) and photos (2006)
- Cilicia Under French Mandate, 1918-1921 Armenian history site with information about the French Cilicia Campaign.