Fungiculture
Encyclopedia
Fungiculture is the process of producing food, medicine
, and other products by the cultivation of mushrooms and other fungi.
The word is also commonly used to refer to the practice of cultivating fungi by leafcutter ant
s, termite
s, ambrosia beetle
s, and marsh periwinkle
s.
s are not plant
s, and require different conditions for optimal growth. Plants develop through photosynthesis
, a process that converts atmospheric carbon dioxide
into carbohydrate
s, especially cellulose
. While sunlight
provides an energy
source for plants, mushrooms derive all of their energy and growth materials from their growth medium, through biochemical decomposition
processes. This does not mean that light
is an unnecessary requirement, since some fungi use light as a signal for fruiting. However, all the materials for growth must already be present in the growth medium. Mushrooms grow well at relative humidity
levels of around 95-100%, and substrate
moisture levels of 50 to 75%.
Instead of seed
s, mushrooms reproduce sexually during underground growth, and asexually through spore
s. Either of these can be contaminated with airborne microorganism
s, which will interfere with mushroom growth and prevent a healthy crop.
Mycelium
, or actively growing mushroom culture, is placed on growth substrate to seed or introduce mushrooms to grow on a substrate. This is also known as inoculation, spawning or adding spawn. Its main advantages are to reduce chances of contamination while giving mushrooms a firm beginning. Spores are another inoculation option, but are less developed than established mycelium. Since they are also contaminated easily, they are only manipulated in laboratory conditions with laminar flow cabinet
.
Mushroom gatherers have the fewest requirements to begin business. Gatherers only need to supply funds for possible park fees, knowledge for identifying mushrooms and gathering time.
There are significant disadvantages to relying on natural mushroom production. These sales may be unregulated, placing buyers at risk for buying toxic or inedible mushrooms. By honest error, harvests may include toxic or inedible species. No controls exist to regulate the quality or frequency of harvests, since gatherers rely on favorable natural conditions and weather to produce fruiting. Conflicts may arise between competing gatherers trying to harvest from the same location.
State parks in the Pacific Northwest or elsewhere may charge fees for mushroom gathering permits. Appalachia also produces edible wild mushrooms, including chanterelles and morels. Pickers may sell directly to distributors, restaurants, or sell their harvest through roadside stands wherever a natural supply of mushrooms is
plentiful.
While there may be concern that harvesting wild mushrooms may exploit or damage a natural environment, harvesting wild mushrooms is different from harvesting wild plants, fishing or hunting animals. In these last three cases, removing individuals decreases the ability of a wild population to reproduce, since fewer adults remain. Removing adults leaves fewer individuals capable of reproducing and reduces genetic diversity.
Harvesting wild mushrooms removes only fruiting bodies
and their attached spore
s. However, the fruiting bodies (mushrooms) have likely dropped spores before harvest time, or will likely drop them en route to the harvester's destination, further expanding the fungi's habitat. Arguably, the practice of mushroom harvesting may actually help the species being harvested. While truffles also represent the fruiting body of a larger underground network, they are an exception, since they rely on animal spore dispersion.
Additionally, reproduction and propagation can still occur by propagation of the parent mycelium
. Harvesting removes none of the parent mycelium, which remains intact underground.
and oyster mushroom
s have traditionally been produced using the outdoor log technique, although controlled techniques such as indoor tray growing or artificial logs made of compressed substrate have been substituted.
Indoor tray growing is the most common commercial technique, followed by containerized growing. The tray technique provides the advantages of scalability and easier harvesting. Unlike wild harvests, indoor techniques provide tight control over growing substrate composition and growing conditions. Indoor harvests are much more predictable.
According to Daniel Royse and Robert Beelman, "[Indoor] Mushroom farming consists of six steps, and although the divisions are somewhat arbitrary, these steps identify what is needed to form a production system. The six steps are phase I composting, phase II fertilizing, spawning, casing, pinning, and cropping."
Complete sterilization is not always required or performed during composting. In some cases, a pasteurization step is not included to allow some beneficial microorganisms to remain in the growth substrate.
Specific time spans and temperatures required during stages 3–6 will vary respective to species and variety. Substrate composition and the geometry of growth substrate will also affect the ideal times and temperatures.
Pinning is the trickiest part for a mushroom grower, since a combination of carbon dioxide
(CO2) concentration, temperature, light, and humidity triggers mushrooms towards fruiting. Up until the point when rhizomorph
s or mushroom "pins" appear, the mycelium is an amorphous mass spread throughout the growth substrate, unrecognizable as a mushroom.
Carbon dioxide concentration becomes elevated during the vegetative growth phase, when mycelium is sealed in a gas-resistant plastic barrier or bag which traps gases produced by the growing mycelium. To induce pinning, this barrier is opened or ruptured. CO2 concentration then decreases from about 0.08% to 0.04%, the ambient atmospheric level
.
.
An ideal substrate will contain enough nitrogen
and carbohydrate
for rapid mushroom growth. Common bulk substrates include:
Mushrooms metabolize complex carbohydrates in their substrate into glucose
, which is then transported through the mycelium as needed for growth and energy. While it is used as a main energy source, its concentration in the growth medium should not exceed 2%. For ideal fruiting, closer to 1% is ideal.
may lay eggs in growth medium, which hatch into worms and damage developing mushrooms during all growth stages. Bacterial blotch caused by Pseudomonas
bacteria or patches of Trichoderma
green mold also pose a risks during the fruiting stage. Pesticides and sanitizing agents are available to use against these infestations. Biological controls for insect sciarid and phorid flies have also been proposed.
A recent epidemic of Trichoderma green mold has significantly affected mushroom production: "From 1994-96, crop losses in Pennsylvania ranged from 30 to 100%".
The borough of Kennett Square
is a historical and present leader in mushroom production. It currently leads production
of Agaricus-type mushrooms, followed by California, Florida and Michigan.
Other mushroom-producing states:
Vancouver, British Columbia, also has a significant number of producers — about 60 as of 1998 — mostly located in the lower Fraser Valley.
Medicinal mushrooms
Medicinal mushrooms are mushrooms, or mushroom extracts, that are used or studied as possible treatments for diseases. Lentinula edodes , Grifola frondosa , Ganoderma lucidum , and Cordyceps, have a history of medicinal use spanning millennia in parts of Asia...
, and other products by the cultivation of mushrooms and other fungi.
The word is also commonly used to refer to the practice of cultivating fungi by leafcutter ant
Leafcutter ant
Leafcutter ants, a non-generic name, are any of 47 species of leaf-chewing ants belonging to the two genera Atta and Acromyrmex.These species of tropical, fungus-growing ants are all endemic to South, Central America, Mexico and parts of the southern United States.The Acromyrmex and Atta ants have...
s, termite
Termite
Termites are a group of eusocial insects that, until recently, were classified at the taxonomic rank of order Isoptera , but are now accepted as the epifamily Termitoidae, of the cockroach order Blattodea...
s, ambrosia beetle
Ambrosia beetle
Ambrosia beetles are beetles of the weevil subfamilies Scolytinae and Platypodinae , which live in nutritional symbiosis with ambrosia fungi and probably with bacteria...
s, and marsh periwinkle
Littoraria irrorata
Littoraria irrorata, common name the Marsh periwinkle, is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Littorinidae....
s.
Introduction
MushroomMushroom
A mushroom is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground on soil or on its food source. The standard for the name "mushroom" is the cultivated white button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus; hence the word "mushroom" is most often applied to those fungi that...
s are not plant
Plant
Plants are living organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Precise definitions of the kingdom vary, but as the term is used here, plants include familiar organisms such as trees, flowers, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green algae. The group is also called green plants or...
s, and require different conditions for optimal growth. Plants develop through photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is a chemical process that converts carbon dioxide into organic compounds, especially sugars, using the energy from sunlight. Photosynthesis occurs in plants, algae, and many species of bacteria, but not in archaea. Photosynthetic organisms are called photoautotrophs, since they can...
, a process that converts atmospheric carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is a naturally occurring chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom...
into carbohydrate
Carbohydrate
A carbohydrate is an organic compound with the empirical formula ; that is, consists only of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with a hydrogen:oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 . However, there are exceptions to this. One common example would be deoxyribose, a component of DNA, which has the empirical...
s, especially cellulose
Cellulose
Cellulose is an organic compound with the formula , a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand β linked D-glucose units....
. While sunlight
Sunlight
Sunlight, in the broad sense, is the total frequency spectrum of electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun. On Earth, sunlight is filtered through the Earth's atmosphere, and solar radiation is obvious as daylight when the Sun is above the horizon.When the direct solar radiation is not blocked...
provides an energy
Energy
In physics, energy is an indirectly observed quantity. It is often understood as the ability a physical system has to do work on other physical systems...
source for plants, mushrooms derive all of their energy and growth materials from their growth medium, through biochemical decomposition
Decomposition
Decomposition is the process by which organic material is broken down into simpler forms of matter. The process is essential for recycling the finite matter that occupies physical space in the biome. Bodies of living organisms begin to decompose shortly after death...
processes. This does not mean that light
Light
Light or visible light is electromagnetic radiation that is visible to the human eye, and is responsible for the sense of sight. Visible light has wavelength in a range from about 380 nanometres to about 740 nm, with a frequency range of about 405 THz to 790 THz...
is an unnecessary requirement, since some fungi use light as a signal for fruiting. However, all the materials for growth must already be present in the growth medium. Mushrooms grow well at relative humidity
Humidity
Humidity is a term for the amount of water vapor in the air, and can refer to any one of several measurements of humidity. Formally, humid air is not "moist air" but a mixture of water vapor and other constituents of air, and humidity is defined in terms of the water content of this mixture,...
levels of around 95-100%, and substrate
Substrate (biology)
In biology a substrate is the surface a plant or animal lives upon and grows on. A substrate can include biotic or abiotic materials and animals. For example, encrusting algae that lives on a rock can be substrate for another animal that lives on top of the algae. See also substrate .-External...
moisture levels of 50 to 75%.
Instead of seed
Seed
A seed is a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat, usually with some stored food. It is the product of the ripened ovule of gymnosperm and angiosperm plants which occurs after fertilization and some growth within the mother plant...
s, mushrooms reproduce sexually during underground growth, and asexually through spore
Spore
In biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many bacteria, plants, algae, fungi and some protozoa. According to scientist Dr...
s. Either of these can be contaminated with airborne microorganism
Microorganism
A microorganism or microbe is a microscopic organism that comprises either a single cell , cell clusters, or no cell at all...
s, which will interfere with mushroom growth and prevent a healthy crop.
Mycelium
Mycelium
thumb|right|Fungal myceliaMycelium is the vegetative part of a fungus, consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae. The mass of hyphae is sometimes called shiro, especially within the fairy ring fungi. Fungal colonies composed of mycelia are found in soil and on or within many other...
, or actively growing mushroom culture, is placed on growth substrate to seed or introduce mushrooms to grow on a substrate. This is also known as inoculation, spawning or adding spawn. Its main advantages are to reduce chances of contamination while giving mushrooms a firm beginning. Spores are another inoculation option, but are less developed than established mycelium. Since they are also contaminated easily, they are only manipulated in laboratory conditions with laminar flow cabinet
Laminar flow cabinet
A laminar flow cabinet or laminar flow closet or tissue culture hood is a carefully enclosed bench designed to prevent contamination of semiconductor wafers, biological samples, or any particle sensitive device. Air is drawn through a HEPA filter and blown in a very smooth, laminar flow towards...
.
Techniques
All mushroom growing techniques require the correct combination of humidity, temperature, substrate (growth medium) and inoculum (spawn or starter culture). Wild harvests, outdoor log inoculation and indoor trays all provide these elements.Wild harvesting
Due to its climate, the Pacific Northwest of the USA produces commercially valuable mushrooms. Valued species include:- American matsutake or pine mushroom (Tricholoma magnivelareTricholoma magnivelareTricholoma magnivelare is a gilled mushroom found in the Pacific Northwest of North America growing in coniferous woodland. These ectomycorrhizal fungi are typically edible species which exist in a symbiotic relationship with various species of pine. They belong to the genus Tricholoma, which...
) - ChanterelleChanterelleCantharellus cibarius, commonly known as the chanterelle, golden chanterelle or girolle, is a fungus. It is probably the best known species of the genus Cantharellus, if not the entire family of Cantharellaceae. It is orange or yellow, meaty and funnel-shaped...
s (Cantharellus formosusCantharellus formosusCantharellus formosus, commonly known as the pacific golden chanterelle, is a fungus native to the Pacific Northwest region of North America. It is a member of the genus Cantharellus along with other popular edible chanterelles. It was only recently distinguished from C. cibarius of Europe, and...
, Cantharellus subalbidusCantharellus subalbidusCantharellus subalbidus, the white chanterelle, is a fungus native to California and the Pacific Northwest region of North America. It is a member of the genus Cantharellus along with other popular edible chanterelles. It is similar in appearance to other chanterelles except for its cream to white...
, and Cantharellus cibarius) - Horn of plenty (Craterellus cornucopioidesCraterellus cornucopioidesCraterellus cornucopioides is an edible mushroom, also known as trumpet of death, black chanterelle, black trumpet, or horn of plenty. The Cornucopia, in Greek mythology, referred to the magnificent horn of the goat Amalthea, that filled itself with whatever meat or drink its owner requested...
) - BoleteBoleteA bolete is a type of fungal fruiting body characterized by the presence of a pileus that is clearly differentiated from the stipe, with a spongy surface of pores on the underside of the pileus...
s (Boletus edulisBoletus edulisBoletus edulis, commonly known as penny bun, porcino or cep, is a basidiomycete fungus, and the type species of the genus Boletus. Widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere across Europe, Asia, and North America, it does not occur naturally in the Southern Hemisphere, although it has been...
and others) - Truffles (Tuber gibbosumTuber gibbosumTuber gibbosum is a species of truffle in the genus Tuber. It is found in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States, where it grows in an ectomycorrhizal association with Douglas-fir.-Taxonomy and phylogeny:...
and Leucangium carthusiana) - Hedgehogs / "spreading-hedgehog mushroom" (Hydnum repandum)
- Edible morel (Morchella esculentaMorchella esculentaMorchella esculenta, is a species of fungus in the Morchellaceae family of the Ascomycota. It is one of the most readily recognized of all the edible mushrooms and highly sought after...
) - Coral tooth mushroom (Hericium abietisHericium abietisHericium abietis is an edible mushroom in the tooth fungus group. It grows on conifer stumps or logs, producing a cream white fruiting body up to tall and wide. It fruits from after the start of the fall rains to mid-season.-External links:...
) - Shaggy parasol (Lepiota rhacodes)
- Black picoa (Picoa carthusiana)
- Cauliflower mushroom (Sparassis crispaSparassis crispaSparassis crispa is a species of fungus in the genus Sparassis.-Description:S. crispa grows in a globe that is up to in diameter. The lobes are flat and curly, resembling lasagna noodles and they are colored white to creamy yellow. They are found growing on wood, usually conifers....
)
Mushroom gatherers have the fewest requirements to begin business. Gatherers only need to supply funds for possible park fees, knowledge for identifying mushrooms and gathering time.
There are significant disadvantages to relying on natural mushroom production. These sales may be unregulated, placing buyers at risk for buying toxic or inedible mushrooms. By honest error, harvests may include toxic or inedible species. No controls exist to regulate the quality or frequency of harvests, since gatherers rely on favorable natural conditions and weather to produce fruiting. Conflicts may arise between competing gatherers trying to harvest from the same location.
State parks in the Pacific Northwest or elsewhere may charge fees for mushroom gathering permits. Appalachia also produces edible wild mushrooms, including chanterelles and morels. Pickers may sell directly to distributors, restaurants, or sell their harvest through roadside stands wherever a natural supply of mushrooms is
plentiful.
While there may be concern that harvesting wild mushrooms may exploit or damage a natural environment, harvesting wild mushrooms is different from harvesting wild plants, fishing or hunting animals. In these last three cases, removing individuals decreases the ability of a wild population to reproduce, since fewer adults remain. Removing adults leaves fewer individuals capable of reproducing and reduces genetic diversity.
Harvesting wild mushrooms removes only fruiting bodies
Sporocarp (fungi)
In fungi, the sporocarp is a multicellular structure on which spore-producing structures, such as basidia or asci, are borne...
and their attached spore
Spore
In biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many bacteria, plants, algae, fungi and some protozoa. According to scientist Dr...
s. However, the fruiting bodies (mushrooms) have likely dropped spores before harvest time, or will likely drop them en route to the harvester's destination, further expanding the fungi's habitat. Arguably, the practice of mushroom harvesting may actually help the species being harvested. While truffles also represent the fruiting body of a larger underground network, they are an exception, since they rely on animal spore dispersion.
Additionally, reproduction and propagation can still occur by propagation of the parent mycelium
Mycelium
thumb|right|Fungal myceliaMycelium is the vegetative part of a fungus, consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae. The mass of hyphae is sometimes called shiro, especially within the fairy ring fungi. Fungal colonies composed of mycelia are found in soil and on or within many other...
. Harvesting removes none of the parent mycelium, which remains intact underground.
Outdoor logs
Mushrooms can be grown on logs placed outdoors in stacks or piles, as has been done for hundreds of years. Sterilization is not performed in this method. Since production may be unpredictable and seasonal, less than 5% of commercially sold mushrooms are produced this way. Here, tree logs are inoculated with spawn, then allowed to grow as they would in wild conditions. Fruiting, or pinning, is triggered by seasonal changes, or by briefly soaking the logs in cool water. ShiitakeShiitake
The Shiitake is an edible mushroom native to East Asia, which is cultivated and consumed in many Asian countries, as well as being dried and exported to many countries around the world. It is a feature of many Asian cuisines including Vietnamese, Chinese, Japanese, Korean and Thai...
and oyster mushroom
Oyster mushroom
Pleurotus ostreatus, the oyster mushroom, is a common edible mushroom. It was first cultivated in Germany as a subsistence measure during World War I and is now grown commercially around the world for food. However, the first documented cultivation was by Kaufert There is some question about the...
s have traditionally been produced using the outdoor log technique, although controlled techniques such as indoor tray growing or artificial logs made of compressed substrate have been substituted.
Indoor trays
Indoor growing provides the ability to tightly regulate light, temperature and humidity while excluding contaminants and pests. This allows consistent production, regulated by spawning cycles. This is typically accomplished in windowless, purpose-built buildings, for large scale commercial production.Indoor tray growing is the most common commercial technique, followed by containerized growing. The tray technique provides the advantages of scalability and easier harvesting. Unlike wild harvests, indoor techniques provide tight control over growing substrate composition and growing conditions. Indoor harvests are much more predictable.
According to Daniel Royse and Robert Beelman, "[Indoor] Mushroom farming consists of six steps, and although the divisions are somewhat arbitrary, these steps identify what is needed to form a production system. The six steps are phase I composting, phase II fertilizing, spawning, casing, pinning, and cropping."
Six phases of mushroom cultivation
| Phase | Time span | Temperature | Key points |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Phase I composting | 6–14 days | Regulate water and NH3 content through microbial action. Add fertilizer / additives |
|
| 2. Phase II composting or pasteurization | 7–18 days via composting method, ~2 hours for pasteurization (heat sterilization) | Reduce number of potentially harmful microbes through further composting, or apply heat sterilization. Remove unwanted NH3. |
|
| 3. Spawning and growth | 14–21 days | 75°F; to 80°F; must be above 74°F; for rapid growth. Must be below 80°F; to 85°F to avoid damaging mycelia |
Add starter culture. Allow mycelium to grow through substrate and form a colony. Depends on substrate dimensions and composition. Finished when mycelium has propagated through entire substrate layer |
| 4. Casing | 13–20 days | Promote the formation of promordia, or mushroom pins. Add a top covering or dressing to the colonized substrate. Fertilizing with nitrogen increases yields. Induces pinning |
|
| 5. Pinning | 18–21 days | Earliest formation of recognizable mushrooms from mycelium. Adjusting temperature, humidity and CO2 will also affect the number of pins, and mushroom size |
|
| 6. Cropping | Repeated over 7-10 day cycles | Harvest |
Complete sterilization is not always required or performed during composting. In some cases, a pasteurization step is not included to allow some beneficial microorganisms to remain in the growth substrate.
Specific time spans and temperatures required during stages 3–6 will vary respective to species and variety. Substrate composition and the geometry of growth substrate will also affect the ideal times and temperatures.
Pinning is the trickiest part for a mushroom grower, since a combination of carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is a naturally occurring chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom...
(CO2) concentration, temperature, light, and humidity triggers mushrooms towards fruiting. Up until the point when rhizomorph
Mycelial cord
Mycelial cords are linear aggregations of parallel-oriented hyphae. The mature cords are composed of wide, empty vessel hyphae surrounded by narrower sheathing hyphae...
s or mushroom "pins" appear, the mycelium is an amorphous mass spread throughout the growth substrate, unrecognizable as a mushroom.
Carbon dioxide concentration becomes elevated during the vegetative growth phase, when mycelium is sealed in a gas-resistant plastic barrier or bag which traps gases produced by the growing mycelium. To induce pinning, this barrier is opened or ruptured. CO2 concentration then decreases from about 0.08% to 0.04%, the ambient atmospheric level
Earth's atmosphere
The atmosphere of Earth is a layer of gases surrounding the planet Earth that is retained by Earth's gravity. The atmosphere protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night...
.
Substrates
Mushroom production converts raw natural ingredients into mushroom tissue, most notably the carbohydrate chitinChitin
Chitin n is a long-chain polymer of a N-acetylglucosamine, a derivative of glucose, and is found in many places throughout the natural world...
.
An ideal substrate will contain enough nitrogen
Nitrogen
Nitrogen is a chemical element that has the symbol N, atomic number of 7 and atomic mass 14.00674 u. Elemental nitrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, and mostly inert diatomic gas at standard conditions, constituting 78.08% by volume of Earth's atmosphere...
and carbohydrate
Carbohydrate
A carbohydrate is an organic compound with the empirical formula ; that is, consists only of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with a hydrogen:oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 . However, there are exceptions to this. One common example would be deoxyribose, a component of DNA, which has the empirical...
for rapid mushroom growth. Common bulk substrates include:
- Wood chips or sawdust
- Mulched hay
- Strawbedded horse or poultry manureManureManure is organic matter used as organic fertilizer in agriculture. Manures contribute to the fertility of the soil by adding organic matter and nutrients, such as nitrogen, that are trapped by bacteria in the soil...
- CorncobCorncobA corncob is the central core of a maize ear.The corn plant's ear is also considered a "cob" or "pole" but it is not fully a "pole" until the ear is shucked, or removed from the plant material around the ear...
s - Waste or recycled paper
- coffee pulp or grounds
- Nut and seed hulls
- Cottonseed hulls
- Cocoa bean hulls
- Cottonseed mealCottonseed mealCottonseed meal is the byproduct remaining after cotton is ginned and the seeds crushed and the oil extracted. The remaining meal is usually used for animal feed and in organic fertilizers. However, the meal can be fed only to adult ruminants because it contains a compound called gossypol...
- SoybeanSoybeanThe soybean or soya bean is a species of legume native to East Asia, widely grown for its edible bean which has numerous uses...
meal - Brewer's grain
- Ammonium nitrate
- UreaUreaUrea or carbamide is an organic compound with the chemical formula CO2. The molecule has two —NH2 groups joined by a carbonyl functional group....
Mushrooms metabolize complex carbohydrates in their substrate into glucose
Glucose
Glucose is a simple sugar and an important carbohydrate in biology. Cells use it as the primary source of energy and a metabolic intermediate...
, which is then transported through the mycelium as needed for growth and energy. While it is used as a main energy source, its concentration in the growth medium should not exceed 2%. For ideal fruiting, closer to 1% is ideal.
Pests and Diseases
Parasitic insects, bacteria and other fungi all pose risks to indoor production. The sciarid fly or phorid flyPhorid fly
Phoridae is a family of small, hump-backed flies resembling fruit flies. Phorid flies can often be identified by their escape habit of running rapidly across a surface rather than taking to the wing. This behaviour is a source of one of their alternate names: scuttle fly. They are a diverse and...
may lay eggs in growth medium, which hatch into worms and damage developing mushrooms during all growth stages. Bacterial blotch caused by Pseudomonas
Pseudomonas
Pseudomonas is a genus of gammaproteobacteria, belonging to the family Pseudomonadaceae containing 191 validly described species.Recently, 16S rRNA sequence analysis has redefined the taxonomy of many bacterial species. As a result, the genus Pseudomonas includes strains formerly classified in the...
bacteria or patches of Trichoderma
Trichoderma
Trichoderma is a genus of fungi that is present in all soils, where they are the most prevalent culturable fungi. Many species in this genus can be characterized as opportunistic avirulent plant symbionts.-Species:...
green mold also pose a risks during the fruiting stage. Pesticides and sanitizing agents are available to use against these infestations. Biological controls for insect sciarid and phorid flies have also been proposed.
A recent epidemic of Trichoderma green mold has significantly affected mushroom production: "From 1994-96, crop losses in Pennsylvania ranged from 30 to 100%".
Commercially cultivated fungi
- Agaricus bisporus, also known as champignon and the button mushroom. This species also includes the portobello and crimini mushrooms.
- Auricularia polytrichaCloud ear fungusCloud ear fungus is an edible jelly fungus. It is gray-brown in color and often used in Asian cooking.-Etymology:...
or Auricularia auricula-judaeAuricularia auricula-judaeAuricularia auricula-judae, known as the Jew's ear, jelly ear or by a number of other common names, is a species of edible Auriculariales fungus found worldwide. The fruiting body is distinguished by its noticeably ear-like shape and brown colouration; it grows upon wood, especially elder...
(Tree ear fungus), two closely related species of jelly fungiJelly fungiThe class Heterobasidiomycetes or jelly fungi is a paraphyletic group of several fungal orders: Tremellales, Auriculariales, Dacrymycetales. These fungi are so named because their foliose to irregularly branched fruiting body is, or appears to be, the consistency of jelly. Actually, many are...
that are commonly used in Chinese cuisineChinese cuisineChinese cuisine is any of several styles originating in the regions of China, some of which have become highly popular in other parts of the world – from Asia to the Americas, Australia, Western Europe and Southern Africa...
. - Flammulina velutipesEnokitakeEnokitake , also Enokidake or Enoki are long, thin white mushrooms used in East Asian cuisine . These mushrooms are cultivars of Flammulina velutipes also called golden needle mushroom...
, the "winter mushroom", also known as enokitake in Japan - Hypsizygus tessulatusShimejiShimeji is a group of edible mushrooms native to East Asia, but also found in northern Europe. Hon-shimeji is a mycorrhizal fungus and difficult to cultivate. Other species are saprotrophs, and buna-shimeji is now widely cultivated...
(also Hypsizygus marmoreus), called shimeji in Japanese, it is a common variety of mushroom available in most markets in Japan. Known as "Beech mushroom" in Europe. - Lentinus edodes, also known as shiitakeShiitakeThe Shiitake is an edible mushroom native to East Asia, which is cultivated and consumed in many Asian countries, as well as being dried and exported to many countries around the world. It is a feature of many Asian cuisines including Vietnamese, Chinese, Japanese, Korean and Thai...
, oakOakAn oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus , of which about 600 species exist. "Oak" may also appear in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus...
mushroom. Lentinus edodes is largely produced in JapanJapanJapan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
, ChinaChinaChinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
and South KoreaSouth KoreaThe Republic of Korea , , is a sovereign state in East Asia, located on the southern portion of the Korean Peninsula. It is neighbored by the People's Republic of China to the west, Japan to the east, North Korea to the north, and the East China Sea and Republic of China to the south...
. Lentinus edodes accounts for 10% of world production of cultivated mushrooms. Common in Japan, China, Australia and North America. - PleurotusPleurotusPleurotus is a genus of gilled mushrooms which includes one of the most widely eaten mushrooms, P. ostreatus. Species of Pleurotus may be called oyster, abalone, or tree mushrooms, and are some of the most commonly cultivated edible mushrooms in the world...
species are the second most important mushrooms in production in the world, accounting for 25% of total world production. Pleurotus mushrooms are cultivated worldwide; China is the major producer. Several species can be grown on carbonaceous matter such as straw or newspaper. In the wild they are usually found growing on wood.- Pleurotus cornucopiae
- Pleurotus eryngiiPleurotus eryngiiPleurotus eryngii is an edible mushroom native to Mediterranean regions of Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa, but also grown in parts of Asia.In Italian it is called cardoncello; in Chinese, it is called xìng bào gū Pleurotus eryngii (also known as king trumpet mushroom, French horn...
(king trumpet mushroom) - Pleurotus ostreatus (oyster mushroom)
- Rhizopus oligosporusRhizopus oligosporusRhizopus oligosporus is a fungus of the family Mucoraceae that is a widely used starter culture for the home production of tempeh. The spores produce fluffy, white mycelia, binding the beans together to create an edible “cake” of partly fermented soybeans.Rhizopus oligosporus produces an...
- the fungal starter culture used in the production of tempehTempehTempeh , or tempe , is a traditional soy product originally from Indonesia. It is made by a natural culturing and controlled fermentation process that binds soybeans into a cake form, similar to a very firm vegetarian burger patty...
. In tempeh the mycelia of R. oligosporus are consumed. - Sparassis crispaSparassis crispaSparassis crispa is a species of fungus in the genus Sparassis.-Description:S. crispa grows in a globe that is up to in diameter. The lobes are flat and curly, resembling lasagna noodles and they are colored white to creamy yellow. They are found growing on wood, usually conifers....
- recent developments have led to this being cultivated in CaliforniaCaliforniaCalifornia is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...
. - Tremella fuciformis (Snow fungus), another type of jelly fungus that is commonly used in Chinese cuisineChinese cuisineChinese cuisine is any of several styles originating in the regions of China, some of which have become highly popular in other parts of the world – from Asia to the Americas, Australia, Western Europe and Southern Africa...
. - Tuber species, (the truffle), Truffles belong to the ascomycete grouping of fungi. The truffle fruitbodies develop underground in mycorrhizaMycorrhizaA mycorrhiza is a symbiotic association between a fungus and the roots of a vascular plant....
l association with certain trees e.g. oakOakAn oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus , of which about 600 species exist. "Oak" may also appear in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus...
, poplarPoplarPopulus is a genus of 25–35 species of deciduous flowering plants in the family Salicaceae, native to most of the Northern Hemisphere. English names variously applied to different species include poplar , aspen, and cottonwood....
, beechBeechBeech is a genus of ten species of deciduous trees in the family Fagaceae, native to temperate Europe, Asia and North America.-Habit:...
, and hazelHazelnutA hazelnut is the nut of the hazel and is also known as a cob nut or filbert nut according to species. A cob is roughly spherical to oval, about 15–25 mm long and 10–15 mm in diameter, with an outer fibrous husk surrounding a smooth shell. A filbert is more elongated, being about twice...
. Being difficult to find, trained pigPigA pig is any of the animals in the genus Sus, within the Suidae family of even-toed ungulates. Pigs include the domestic pig, its ancestor the wild boar, and several other wild relatives...
s or dogDogThe domestic dog is a domesticated form of the gray wolf, a member of the Canidae family of the order Carnivora. The term is used for both feral and pet varieties. The dog may have been the first animal to be domesticated, and has been the most widely kept working, hunting, and companion animal in...
s are often used to sniff them out for easy harvesting.- Tuber aestivum (Summer or St. Jean truffle)
- Tuber magnatum (Piemont white truffle)
- Tuber melanosporum (Périgord truffle)
- T.melanosporum x T.magnatum (Khanaqa truffle)
- TerfeziaTerfeziaTerfezia is a genus of truffle-like fungi within the Pezizaceae family. Terfezia species are commonly known as desert truffles. Some authorities consider this the type genus of the family Terfeziaceae, although phylogenetic analysis suggests that it nests within the Pezizaceae. The Dictionary of...
sp. (Desert truffle)
- Ustilago maydis (Corn smut), a fungal pathogen of the maize plants. Also called the Mexican truffle, although not a true truffle.
- Volvariella volvaceaVolvariella volvaceaVolvariella volvacea is a species of edible mushroom cultivated throughout East and Southeast Asia and used extensively in Asian cuisines. In Chinese, they are called cǎogū Volvariella volvacea (also known as straw mushroom or paddy straw mushroom; syn. Volvaria volvacea, Agaricus volvaceus,...
(the "Paddy straw mushroom.") VolvariellaVolvariellaVolvariella is a genus of mushrooms with deep salmon pink gills and spore prints. They lack a ring, and have an Amanita-like volva at the stem base. Some species of Amanita look similar, but Amanita has white spores and often have a ring. Since the gills of young Volvariella are white at first,...
mushrooms account for 16% of total production of cultivated mushrooms in the world.
Production regions in the United States
Pennsylvania is the top-producing mushroom state in the United States, and celebrates September as "Mushroom Month".The borough of Kennett Square
Kennett Square, Pennsylvania
Kennett Square is a borough in Chester County, Pennsylvania, United States. It is known as the Mushroom Capital of the World because mushroom farming in the region produces over a million pounds of mushrooms a year...
is a historical and present leader in mushroom production. It currently leads production
of Agaricus-type mushrooms, followed by California, Florida and Michigan.
Other mushroom-producing states:
- East: Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Maryland, New York, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, and Vermont
- Central: Illinois, Oklahoma, Texas, and Wisconsin
- West: California, Colorado, Montana, Oregon, Utah and Washington
Vancouver, British Columbia, also has a significant number of producers — about 60 as of 1998 — mostly located in the lower Fraser Valley.