Galerina
Encyclopedia
Galerina is a genus
of small brown-spored saprobic mushrooms, with over 300 species found throughout the world, from the far north to remote Macquarie Island
in the Southern Ocean
. Species are typically small and hygrophanous
, with a slender and brittle stem
. They are often found growing on wood, and when on the ground have a preference for mossy habitats. This group is most noted for toxic species which are occasionally confused with hallucinogenic species of Psilocybe
.
Galerina means helmet-like.
species: a small conical to bell-shaped cap
, and gills attached to a long and slender cartilaginous stem
. Species have a pileipellis
that is a cutis, and ornamented spores that are brown in deposit, where the spore ornamentation comes from an extra spore covering.
Galerina fruiting bodies are typically small, undistinguished mushrooms with a typical "little brown mushroom" morphology and a yellow-brown, light brown to cinnamon-brown spore print
. The pileus
is typically glabrous and often hygrophanous
, and a cortina
-type veil is present in young specimens of roughly half of recognized species, though it sometimes disappears as the mushroom ages in many of these species. Microscopically, they are highly variable as well, though most species have spores that are ornamented, lack a germ pore, and have a plage
. Many species also have characteristic tibiiform cystidia. However, there are many exceptions, and many species of Galerina lack one or more of these microscopic characteristics. Ecologically, all Galerina are saprobic, growing in habitats like rotting wood or in moss.
The spores of Galerina feature an ornamentation that comes from the outer layer of the spore breaking up on maturity to produce either warts, wrinkles or "ears", flaps of material loosened from where the spore was attached to the basidia. This outer layer of the spore often is not complete, but has a clear patch in many species just above the attachment, this clear patch is called a plage
. This plage is not evident in all species, and the spore covering does not always breakup in all species, making it sometimes difficult to correctly determine a mushroom of this genus.
The specific features that define the genus require a microscope to confirm. In the wild it can be difficult to determine a Galerina from a number of similar genera, such as Pholiota
, Tubaria
, Conocybe
, Pholiotina
, Agrocybe
, Gymnopilus
, Phaeogalera and Psilocybe
. For the most part, Galerinas will be found associated with moss
, and this can separate out the genus in nature fairly well. But this identification is more difficult in the section Naucoriopsis, which does not associate with moss, and is a decomposer of wood.
Phaeogalera is a genus that was segregated from Galerina by Kühner. Phaeogalera resemble Galerina in their habitat, macroscopic appearance, and spore print color, however, their microscopic characteristics (smooth spores with a distinct germ pore
and non-tibiiform cystidia) more closely resemble Psilocybe
. A recent study confirms the affinity of Phaeogalera and the non-psilocybin Psilocybe.
of the genus.
and other amatoxins. Galerina steglichii is very rare, bruises blue and contains the hallucinogen psilocybin
.
and other Psilocybe species. Galerina can be distinguished from psilocybian Psilocybe by the following characteristics:
Although these rules are specific to the separation of Galerina from certain Psilocybe, since mixed patches of Psilocybe and Galerina can occur, it is essential to be sure of the identity of each sporocarp collected.
Galerina also present some risk of confusion with several species of small edible mushrooms, notably Kuehneromyces mutabilis
and candy caps (L. camphoratus and allies).
of the genus Galerina. This species is common in beds of damp moss (along with many other species of Galerina). There are a number of variations of this species that have been named over the years: var. vittiformis f. vittiformis is a 2-spored species; var. vittiformis f. tetrasporis is a 4-spored form; var. pachyspora has been collected on Macquarie Island
.
Galerina marginata
(also known as autumn skullcap, or deadly galerina) is a poisonous species found throughout the temperate regions of the world, in habitats as diverse as forests and urban parklands, wherever rotting wood is found. DNA studies found that Galerina autumnalis and five other species of Galerina with similar morphologies were, in fact, synonyms of Galerina marginata.
Galerina sulciceps
, a lethal species found in Indonesia
and responsible for deaths there. One study found it more toxic than Amanita phalloides.
Several Galerina species are listed by the US Forest Service as "species of special concern" in the Northwest Forest Plan
. These species are considered indicator species
for old growth coniferous forest in the Pacific Northwest
: Galerina atkinsonia, Galerina cerina, Galerina heterocystis, Galerina sphagnicola, and Galerina vittiformis.
Genus
In biology, a genus is a low-level taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms, which is an example of definition by genus and differentia...
of small brown-spored saprobic mushrooms, with over 300 species found throughout the world, from the far north to remote Macquarie Island
Macquarie Island
Macquarie Island lies in the southwest corner of the Pacific Ocean, about half-way between New Zealand and Antarctica, at 54°30S, 158°57E. Politically, it has formed part of the Australian state of Tasmania since 1900 and became a Tasmanian State Reserve in 1978. In 1997 it became a world heritage...
in the Southern Ocean
Southern Ocean
The Southern Ocean comprises the southernmost waters of the World Ocean, generally taken to be south of 60°S latitude and encircling Antarctica. It is usually regarded as the fourth-largest of the five principal oceanic divisions...
. Species are typically small and hygrophanous
Hygrophanous
The adjective hygrophanous refers to the color change of mushroom tissue as it loses or absorbs water, which causes the pileipellis to become more transparent when wet and opaque when dry....
, with a slender and brittle stem
Stipe (mycology)
thumb|150px|right|Diagram of a [[basidiomycete]] stipe with an [[annulus |annulus]] and [[volva |volva]]In mycology a stipe refers to the stem or stalk-like feature supporting the cap of a mushroom. Like all tissues of the mushroom other than the hymenium, the stipe is composed of sterile hyphal...
. They are often found growing on wood, and when on the ground have a preference for mossy habitats. This group is most noted for toxic species which are occasionally confused with hallucinogenic species of Psilocybe
Psilocybe
Psilocybe is a genus of small mushrooms growing worldwide. This genus is best known for its species with psychedelic or hallucinogenic properties, widely known as "magic mushrooms", though the majority of species do not contain hallucinogenic compounds...
.
Galerina means helmet-like.
Taxonomic definition
The genus Galerina is defined as small mushrooms of mycenoid stature, that is, roughly similar in form to MycenaMycena
Mycena is a large genus of small saprotrophic mushrooms that are rarely more than a few centimeters in width. They are characterized by a white spore print, a small conical or bell-shaped cap, and a thin fragile stem. Most are gray or brown, but a few species have brighter colors. Most have a...
species: a small conical to bell-shaped cap
Pileus (mycology)
The pileus is the technical name for the cap, or cap-like part, of a basidiocarp or ascocarp that supports a spore-bearing surface, the hymenium. The hymenium may consist of lamellae, tubes, or teeth, on the underside of the pileus...
, and gills attached to a long and slender cartilaginous stem
Stipe (mycology)
thumb|150px|right|Diagram of a [[basidiomycete]] stipe with an [[annulus |annulus]] and [[volva |volva]]In mycology a stipe refers to the stem or stalk-like feature supporting the cap of a mushroom. Like all tissues of the mushroom other than the hymenium, the stipe is composed of sterile hyphal...
. Species have a pileipellis
Pileipellis
thumb|300px||right|The cuticle of some mushrooms, such as [[Russula mustelina]] shown here, can be peeled from the cap, and may be useful as an identification feature....
that is a cutis, and ornamented spores that are brown in deposit, where the spore ornamentation comes from an extra spore covering.
Description
Spore print
thumb|300px|right|Making a spore print of the mushroom Volvariella volvacea shown in composite: mushroom cap laid on white and dark paper; cap removed after 24 hours showing pinkish-tan spore print...
. The pileus
Pileus (mycology)
The pileus is the technical name for the cap, or cap-like part, of a basidiocarp or ascocarp that supports a spore-bearing surface, the hymenium. The hymenium may consist of lamellae, tubes, or teeth, on the underside of the pileus...
is typically glabrous and often hygrophanous
Hygrophanous
The adjective hygrophanous refers to the color change of mushroom tissue as it loses or absorbs water, which causes the pileipellis to become more transparent when wet and opaque when dry....
, and a cortina
Partial veil
thumb|150px|right|Developmental stages of [[Agaricus campestris]] showing the role and evolution of a partial veilPartial veil is a mycological term used to describe a temporary structure of tissue found on the fruiting bodies of some basidiomycete fungi, typically agarics...
-type veil is present in young specimens of roughly half of recognized species, though it sometimes disappears as the mushroom ages in many of these species. Microscopically, they are highly variable as well, though most species have spores that are ornamented, lack a germ pore, and have a plage
Plage (mycology)
A plage is a clear, unornamented area on the basal area of an otherwise ornamented spore. Characteristic of spores from the euagaric genus Galerina.-Images:* - line drawing* - photo...
. Many species also have characteristic tibiiform cystidia. However, there are many exceptions, and many species of Galerina lack one or more of these microscopic characteristics. Ecologically, all Galerina are saprobic, growing in habitats like rotting wood or in moss.
The spores of Galerina feature an ornamentation that comes from the outer layer of the spore breaking up on maturity to produce either warts, wrinkles or "ears", flaps of material loosened from where the spore was attached to the basidia. This outer layer of the spore often is not complete, but has a clear patch in many species just above the attachment, this clear patch is called a plage
Plage (mycology)
A plage is a clear, unornamented area on the basal area of an otherwise ornamented spore. Characteristic of spores from the euagaric genus Galerina.-Images:* - line drawing* - photo...
. This plage is not evident in all species, and the spore covering does not always breakup in all species, making it sometimes difficult to correctly determine a mushroom of this genus.
The specific features that define the genus require a microscope to confirm. In the wild it can be difficult to determine a Galerina from a number of similar genera, such as Pholiota
Pholiota
Pholiota is a genus of small to fleshy mushrooms in the family Strophariaceae. The genus has a widespread distribution, especially in temperate regions, and contains about 150 species....
, Tubaria
Tubaria
Tubaria is a genus of fungi in the Inocybaceae family. The genus has a widespread distribution , and contains 20 species.-Species:*Tubaria albostipitata*Tubaria confragosa*Tubaria conspersa...
, Conocybe
Conocybe
The genus Conocybe is a genus of mushrooms consisting of Conocybe tenera and at least 243 other species, with at least 50 species in North America....
, Pholiotina
Pholiotina
Pholiotina is a genus of small mushrooms.-Taxonomic details:The genus Pholiotina is defined as small thin Mycena like mushrooms,with an hymenoderm pileipellis, a dry cap surface, cystidia which are...
, Agrocybe
Agrocybe
Agrocybe, including edible fungi such as the Agrocybe cylindracea, is a genus of mushroom with similar characteristics to the Tricholoma matsutake, Agrocybe aegerita and Agrocybe parasitica. Some are poisonous mushrooms...
, Gymnopilus
Gymnopilus
Gymnopilus is a genus of gilled mushrooms within the fungal family Strophariaceae containing about 200 rusty-orange spored mushroom species formerly divided among Pholiota and the defunct genus Flammula. The fruiting body is typically reddish brown to rusty orange to yellow, medium to large,...
, Phaeogalera and Psilocybe
Psilocybe
Psilocybe is a genus of small mushrooms growing worldwide. This genus is best known for its species with psychedelic or hallucinogenic properties, widely known as "magic mushrooms", though the majority of species do not contain hallucinogenic compounds...
. For the most part, Galerinas will be found associated with moss
Moss
Mosses are small, soft plants that are typically 1–10 cm tall, though some species are much larger. They commonly grow close together in clumps or mats in damp or shady locations. They do not have flowers or seeds, and their simple leaves cover the thin wiry stems...
, and this can separate out the genus in nature fairly well. But this identification is more difficult in the section Naucoriopsis, which does not associate with moss, and is a decomposer of wood.
Phaeogalera is a genus that was segregated from Galerina by Kühner. Phaeogalera resemble Galerina in their habitat, macroscopic appearance, and spore print color, however, their microscopic characteristics (smooth spores with a distinct germ pore
Germ pore
A germ pore is a small pore in the outer wall of a fungal spore through which the germ tube exits upon germination. It can be apical or eccentric in its location, and, on light microscopy, may be visualized as a lighter coloured area on the cell wall....
and non-tibiiform cystidia) more closely resemble Psilocybe
Psilocybe
Psilocybe is a genus of small mushrooms growing worldwide. This genus is best known for its species with psychedelic or hallucinogenic properties, widely known as "magic mushrooms", though the majority of species do not contain hallucinogenic compounds...
. A recent study confirms the affinity of Phaeogalera and the non-psilocybin Psilocybe.
Phylogenetics
Galerina has recently been found to be polyphyletic, consisting of at least three unrelated clades, although not all species were studied and for most currently recognized species is uncertain still in which they belong. Each of these clades corresponds to a subgenus of Galerina, as outlined by Kühner. The great diversity of micromorphology found in Galerina is probably due to the polyphylyPolyphyly
A polyphyletic group is one whose members' last common ancestor is not a member of the group.For example, the group consisting of warm-blooded animals is polyphyletic, because it contains both mammals and birds, but the most recent common ancestor of mammals and birds was cold-blooded...
of the genus.
Chemistry and toxicology
Many (though not all) Galerina contain alpha-amanitinAlpha-amanitin
alpha-Amanitin or α-amanitin is a cyclic peptide of eight amino acids. It is possibly the most deadly of all the amatoxins, toxins found in several species of the Amanita genus of mushrooms, one being the Death cap as well as the Destroying angel, a complex of similar species, principally A....
and other amatoxins. Galerina steglichii is very rare, bruises blue and contains the hallucinogen psilocybin
Psilocybin
Psilocybin is a naturally occurring psychedelic prodrug, with mind-altering effects similar to those of LSD and mescaline, after it is converted to psilocin. The effects can include altered thinking processes, perceptual distortions, an altered sense of time, and spiritual experiences, as well as...
.
Identification
The extreme toxicity of some Galerina species means that recognition of Galerina is of great importance to mushroom hunters who are seeking hallucinogenic Psilocybe. Species like Galerina marginata may bear a superficial resemblance to Psilocybe cyanescensPsilocybe cyanescens
Psilocybe cyanescens is a species of potent psychedelic mushroom. The main compounds responsible for its psychedelic effects are psilocybin and psilocin. It belongs to the family Strophariaceae...
and other Psilocybe species. Galerina can be distinguished from psilocybian Psilocybe by the following characteristics:
- Spore printSpore printthumb|300px|right|Making a spore print of the mushroom Volvariella volvacea shown in composite: mushroom cap laid on white and dark paper; cap removed after 24 hours showing pinkish-tan spore print...
color: blackish-brown to lilac-brown in Psilocybe, light brown to rusty brown in Galerina. Spore color can be seen by taking a spore print or by looking for evidence of spore drop on the stipe or on surrounding mushrooms.
- Staining reaction: Psilocybian Psilocybe fruiting bodies stain blue to varying degrees when bruised, while Galerina do not. The strength of this reaction varies with the amount of psilocinPsilocinPsilocin , an aromatic compound, sometimes also spelled psilocine, psilocyn, or psilotsin, is a psychedelic mushroom alkaloid. It is found in most psychedelic mushrooms together with its phosphorylated counterpart psilocybin...
present in the tissues of the mushroom. Fruiting bodies with little psilocin will stain weakly if at all, while sporocarps with a high psilocin content will stain strongly blue. Only one rare Galerina has blue-staining tissue, though in some cases the flesh will blacken when handled, and this may be misinterpreted as a bluing reaction.
Although these rules are specific to the separation of Galerina from certain Psilocybe, since mixed patches of Psilocybe and Galerina can occur, it is essential to be sure of the identity of each sporocarp collected.
Galerina also present some risk of confusion with several species of small edible mushrooms, notably Kuehneromyces mutabilis
Kuehneromyces mutabilis
Kuehneromyces mutabilis , commonly known as the Sheathed Woodtuft, is an edible fungus which grows in clumps on tree stumps or other dead wood. A few other species have been described in the genus Kuehneromyces, but K...
and candy caps (L. camphoratus and allies).
Notable species
Galerina vittiformis is the type speciesType species
In biological nomenclature, a type species is both a concept and a practical system which is used in the classification and nomenclature of animals and plants. The value of a "type species" lies in the fact that it makes clear what is meant by a particular genus name. A type species is the species...
of the genus Galerina. This species is common in beds of damp moss (along with many other species of Galerina). There are a number of variations of this species that have been named over the years: var. vittiformis f. vittiformis is a 2-spored species; var. vittiformis f. tetrasporis is a 4-spored form; var. pachyspora has been collected on Macquarie Island
Macquarie Island
Macquarie Island lies in the southwest corner of the Pacific Ocean, about half-way between New Zealand and Antarctica, at 54°30S, 158°57E. Politically, it has formed part of the Australian state of Tasmania since 1900 and became a Tasmanian State Reserve in 1978. In 1997 it became a world heritage...
.
Galerina marginata
Galerina marginata
Galerina marginata is a species of poisonous fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae of the order Agaricales. Prior to 2001, the species G. autumnalis, G. oregonensis, G. unicolor, and G. venenata were thought to be separate due to differences in habitat and the viscidity of their...
(also known as autumn skullcap, or deadly galerina) is a poisonous species found throughout the temperate regions of the world, in habitats as diverse as forests and urban parklands, wherever rotting wood is found. DNA studies found that Galerina autumnalis and five other species of Galerina with similar morphologies were, in fact, synonyms of Galerina marginata.
Galerina sulciceps
Galerina sulciceps
Galerina sulciceps is a dangerously toxic species of fungus in the family Strophariaceae, of the order Agaricales. It is distributed in tropical Indonesia and India, but has reportedly been found fruiting in European greenhouses on occasion...
, a lethal species found in Indonesia
Indonesia
Indonesia , officially the Republic of Indonesia , is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia is an archipelago comprising approximately 13,000 islands. It has 33 provinces with over 238 million people, and is the world's fourth most populous country. Indonesia is a republic, with an...
and responsible for deaths there. One study found it more toxic than Amanita phalloides.
Several Galerina species are listed by the US Forest Service as "species of special concern" in the Northwest Forest Plan
Northwest Forest Plan
The Northwest Forest Plan is a series of federal policies and guidelines governing land use on federal lands in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. It covers areas ranging from Northern California to western Washington...
. These species are considered indicator species
Indicator species
An indicator species is any biological species that defines a trait or characteristic of the environment. For example, a species may delineate an ecoregion or indicate an environmental condition such as a disease outbreak, pollution, species competition or climate change...
for old growth coniferous forest in the Pacific Northwest
Pacific Northwest
The Pacific Northwest is a region in northwestern North America, bounded by the Pacific Ocean to the west and, loosely, by the Rocky Mountains on the east. Definitions of the region vary and there is no commonly agreed upon boundary, even among Pacific Northwesterners. A common concept of the...
: Galerina atkinsonia, Galerina cerina, Galerina heterocystis, Galerina sphagnicola, and Galerina vittiformis.
Further reading
- Smith AH, Singer R. (1964). A monograph of the genus Galerina Earle. New York: Hafner Publishing Co. 384 p. (Full text available through link)
External links
- Fungus of the Month for May 2003: Galerina autumnalis by Tom Volk, TomVolkFungi.net
- Norwegian Fungus of the Month May 2001: Galerina pseudomycenopsis Pilát (Archived at the Internet ArchiveInternet ArchiveThe Internet Archive is a non-profit digital library with the stated mission of "universal access to all knowledge". It offers permanent storage and access to collections of digitized materials, including websites, music, moving images, and nearly 3 million public domain books. The Internet Archive...
, 2006-05-14.) - Galerina autumnalis MykoWeb.com
- Galerina images, MycoSite, University of Oslo, Norway