Galiella rufa
Encyclopedia
Galiella rufa, commonly known as the rubber cup, the rufous rubber cup, or the hairy rubber cup, is a species of fungus
in the family Sarcosomataceae
. The fungus produces cup-shaped fruit bodies
that typically grow in clusters on branches and exposed portions of buried wood throughout eastern and Midwest North America and in Malaysia. The fruit bodies have the texture of tough, gelatinous rubber, and have a rough, blackish-brown, felt-like outer surface and a smooth reddish-brown inner surface. Although generally considered inedible
by North American mushroom field guide
s, it is commonly consumed in Malaysia. The fungus produces several chemicals with a variety of bioactive
properties.
. In 1913, Pier Andrea Saccardo
transferred it to the genus Gloeocalyx as defined by George Edward Massee
in 1901 (a genus now synonymous with Plectania
) due to its hyaline
(translucent) spores. Richard Korf made it the type species
of his newly created Galiella
in 1957, a genus that encompasses bulgarioid species (those with a morphology
similar to those in Bulgaria
) with spores that feature surface warts that are made of callose
-pectic
substances that stain with methyl blue
dye.
In 1906, Charles Horton Peck
described the variety magna from material collected in North Elba, New York
. Peck explained that the variety differed from the typical species in several ways: var. magna grew among fallen leaves under balsam fir
trees, or among moss
es on the ground, not on buried wood; it lacked a stem, and was instead broad and rounded underneath; its hymenium was more yellow-brown then the nominate variety; and, its spore were slightly longer.
The specific epithet rufa means "rusty" or reddish-brown", and refers to the color of the hymenium. The species is commonly
named the "rubber cup", the "rufous rubber cup", or the "hairy rubber cup". In Sabah, it is known as mata rusa (deer eyes), and in Sarawak, mata kerbau (buffalo eyes).
s. They later open in the shape of a shallow cup, and reach diameters of 15 – wide. The cup margin is curved inwards and irregularly toothed; the teeth are a lighter color than the hymenium. The interior surface of the cup, which bears the spore
-bearing surface (the hymenium
) is reddish-brown to orange-brown. The exterior surface is blackish-brown, and covered with hairs that measure 7–8 μm
long that give it a felt-like or hairy texture. The flesh
of the fruit body lacks any distinctive taste or odor, and is grayish, translucent, gelatinous and rubbery. The fungus sometimes has a short stem
that is up to 10 mm (0.393700787401575 in) long by 5 mm (0.196850393700787 in) wide, but it may be missing in some specimens. Dried fruit bodies become leathery and wrinkled.
Although the fruit bodies are generally considered by North American field guide
s to be inedible, or of unknown edibility, in parts of Malaysia it is commonly eaten and even "prized for its edibility".
The spores are thin-walled, elliptical with narrowed ends, and covered with fine warts; they have dimensions of 10–22 by 8–10 μm. Both the spores and the asci
(spore-bearing cells) are nonamyloid
. The asci are narrow and typically 275–300 μm long. The paraphyses
(sterile cells interspersed among the asci in the hymenium) are slender threadlike. Ultrastructural studies have demonstrated that the development of the spore wall in G. rufa is similar to the genus Discina (in the Helvellaceae
family) and to the other Sarcosomataceae
, especially Plectania nannfeldtii
; both of these species have fine secondary wall spore ornaments.
Asia, where it grows on the rotting wood of Spruce
trees. It has larger ascospores than G. rufa, typically 26–41 by 13–16 µm. Bulgaria inquinans
is similar in shape and size, but has a shiny black hymenium. Sarcosoma globosum, another species found in eastern North American, is black, has a more liquid interior than G. rufa, and is larger—up to 100 mm (3.9 in) across. Wolfina aurantiopsis has a shallower, woodier fruit body with a yellowish inner surface.
Galiella rufa is found in Midwest and eastern North America, and has been collected in areas between New York
and Minnesota
, Missouri
and North Carolina
. The species is also found in Malaysia.
: pregaliellactone, galiellactone. The compounds have anti-nematicidal
activity, killing the nematodes Caenorhabditis elegans
and Meloidogyne incognita
. These compounds have been shown in laboratory tests to inhibit the early steps of the biosynthetic pathways induced by plant hormone
s known as gibberellic acid
s, and they also inhibit the germination
of seeds of several plants. Galiellactone is additionally a highly selective and potent inhibitor of interleukin-6 (IL-6) signaling in HepG2 cells. IL-6 is a multifunctional cytokine
which is produced by a large variety of cells and functions as a regulator of immune response, acute phase reactions, and hematopoiesis. Researchers are interested in the potential of small-molecule inhibitors (such as the ones produced by G. rufa) to interfere with the IL-6 signaling cascade that leads to the expression
of genes involved in disease.
Fungus
A fungus is a member of a large group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds , as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi, which is separate from plants, animals, and bacteria...
in the family Sarcosomataceae
Sarcosomataceae
The Sarcosomataceae are a family of fungi in the order Pezizales. According to a 2008 estimate, the family contains 10 genera and 57 species. Most species are found in temperate areas, and are typically saprobic on rotten or buried wood....
. The fungus produces cup-shaped fruit bodies
Ascocarp
An ascocarp, or ascoma , is the fruiting body of an ascomycete fungus. It consists of very tightly interwoven hyphae and may contain millions of asci, each of which typically contains eight ascospores...
that typically grow in clusters on branches and exposed portions of buried wood throughout eastern and Midwest North America and in Malaysia. The fruit bodies have the texture of tough, gelatinous rubber, and have a rough, blackish-brown, felt-like outer surface and a smooth reddish-brown inner surface. Although generally considered inedible
Edible mushroom
Edible mushrooms are the fleshy and edible fruiting bodies of several species of fungi. Mushrooms belong to the macrofungi, because their fruiting structures are large enough to be seen with the naked eye. They can appear either below ground or above ground where they may be picked by hand...
by North American mushroom field guide
Field guide
A field guide is a book designed to help the reader identify wildlife or other objects of natural occurrence . It is generally designed to be brought into the 'field' or local area where such objects exist to help distinguish between similar objects...
s, it is commonly consumed in Malaysia. The fungus produces several chemicals with a variety of bioactive
Biological activity
In pharmacology, biological activity or pharmacological activity describes the beneficial or adverse effects of a drug on living matter. When a drug is a complex chemical mixture, this activity is exerted by the substance's active ingredient or pharmacophore but can be modified by the other...
properties.
Taxonomy and naming
The species was originally named Bulgaria rufa in 1832 by Lewis David de Schweinitz, based on material collected from Bethlehem, PennsylvaniaBethlehem, Pennsylvania
Bethlehem is a city in Lehigh and Northampton Counties in the Lehigh Valley region of eastern Pennsylvania, in the United States. As of the 2010 census, the city had a total population of 74,982, making it the seventh largest city in Pennsylvania, after Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie,...
. In 1913, Pier Andrea Saccardo
Pier Andrea Saccardo
Pier Andrea Saccardo was an Italian botanist and mycologist.- Life :...
transferred it to the genus Gloeocalyx as defined by George Edward Massee
George Edward Massee
George Edward Massee was an English mycologist, plant pathologist, and botanist.-Background and education:George Massee was born in Scampston, East Yorkshire, the son of a farmer...
in 1901 (a genus now synonymous with Plectania
Plectania
Plectania is a genus of fungi in the Sarcosomataceae family. There are 15 species in the genus, which have a widespread distribution, especially in northern temperate areas.-External links:* at Index Fungorum...
) due to its hyaline
Hyaline
The term hyaline denotes a substance with a glass-like appearance.-Histopathology:In histopathological medical usage, a hyaline substance appears glassy and pink after being stained with haematoxylin and eosin — usually it is an acellular, proteinaceous material...
(translucent) spores. Richard Korf made it the type species
Type species
In biological nomenclature, a type species is both a concept and a practical system which is used in the classification and nomenclature of animals and plants. The value of a "type species" lies in the fact that it makes clear what is meant by a particular genus name. A type species is the species...
of his newly created Galiella
Galiella
Galiella is a genus of fungi in the family Sarcosomataceae. The genus is widely distributed in northern temperate regions, and according to one estimate, contains eight species.-Taxonomy:...
in 1957, a genus that encompasses bulgarioid species (those with a morphology
Morphology (biology)
In biology, morphology is a branch of bioscience dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features....
similar to those in Bulgaria
Bulgaria (genus)
Bulgaria is a genus of fungi in the family Bulgariaceae....
) with spores that feature surface warts that are made of callose
Callose
Callose is a plant polysaccharide. It is composed of glucose residues linked together through β-1,3-linkages, and is termed a β-glucan. It is thought to be manufactured at the cell wall by callose synthases and is degraded by β-1,3-glucanases. It is laid down at plasmodesmata, at the cell...
-pectic
Pectin
Pectin is a structural heteropolysaccharide contained in the primary cell walls of terrestrial plants. It was first isolated and described in 1825 by Henri Braconnot...
substances that stain with methyl blue
Methyl blue
Methyl blue, also known as Cotton blue, Helvetia blue, Acid blue 93, or C.I. 42780, is a chemical compound with the molecular formula C37H27N3Na2O9S3. It is used as a stain in histology. Methyl blue stains collagen blue in tissue sections. It is soluble in water and slightly soluble in ethanol...
dye.
In 1906, Charles Horton Peck
Charles Horton Peck
Charles Horton Peck, born March 30, 1833 in Sand Lake, New York, died 1917 in Albany, New York, was an American mycologist of the 19th and early 20th centuries...
described the variety magna from material collected in North Elba, New York
North Elba, New York
North Elba is a town in Essex County, New York, United States. The population was 8,661 at the 2000 census. The town is named after the island of Elba.North Elba is on the western edge of the county...
. Peck explained that the variety differed from the typical species in several ways: var. magna grew among fallen leaves under balsam fir
Balsam Fir
The balsam fir is a North American fir, native to most of eastern and central Canada and the northeastern United States .-Growth:It is a small to medium-size evergreen tree typically tall, rarely to tall, with a narrow conic crown...
trees, or among moss
Moss
Mosses are small, soft plants that are typically 1–10 cm tall, though some species are much larger. They commonly grow close together in clumps or mats in damp or shady locations. They do not have flowers or seeds, and their simple leaves cover the thin wiry stems...
es on the ground, not on buried wood; it lacked a stem, and was instead broad and rounded underneath; its hymenium was more yellow-brown then the nominate variety; and, its spore were slightly longer.
The specific epithet rufa means "rusty" or reddish-brown", and refers to the color of the hymenium. The species is commonly
Common name
A common name of a taxon or organism is a name in general use within a community; it is often contrasted with the scientific name for the same organism...
named the "rubber cup", the "rufous rubber cup", or the "hairy rubber cup". In Sabah, it is known as mata rusa (deer eyes), and in Sarawak, mata kerbau (buffalo eyes).
Description
The fruit bodies of G. rufa are initially closed and roughly spherical to top-shaped, and resemble minute puffballPuffball
A puffball is a member of any of several groups of fungus in the division Basidiomycota. The puffballs were previously treated as a taxonomic group called the Gasteromycetes or Gasteromycetidae, but they are now known to be a polyphyletic assemblage. The distinguishing feature of all puffballs is...
s. They later open in the shape of a shallow cup, and reach diameters of 15 – wide. The cup margin is curved inwards and irregularly toothed; the teeth are a lighter color than the hymenium. The interior surface of the cup, which bears the spore
Spore
In biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many bacteria, plants, algae, fungi and some protozoa. According to scientist Dr...
-bearing surface (the hymenium
Hymenium
The hymenium is the tissue layer on the hymenophore of a fungal fruiting body where the cells develop into basidia or asci, which produce spores. In some species all of the cells of the hymenium develop into basidia or asci, while in others some cells develop into sterile cells called cystidia or...
) is reddish-brown to orange-brown. The exterior surface is blackish-brown, and covered with hairs that measure 7–8 μm
Micrometre
A micrometer , is by definition 1×10-6 of a meter .In plain English, it means one-millionth of a meter . Its unit symbol in the International System of Units is μm...
long that give it a felt-like or hairy texture. The flesh
Trama (mycology)
In mycology trama is a term for the inner, fleshy portion of a mushroom's basidiocarp, or fruit body. It is distinct from the outer layer of tissue, known as the pileipellis or cuticle, and from the spore-bearing tissue layer known as the hymenium....
of the fruit body lacks any distinctive taste or odor, and is grayish, translucent, gelatinous and rubbery. The fungus sometimes has a short stem
Stipe (mycology)
thumb|150px|right|Diagram of a [[basidiomycete]] stipe with an [[annulus |annulus]] and [[volva |volva]]In mycology a stipe refers to the stem or stalk-like feature supporting the cap of a mushroom. Like all tissues of the mushroom other than the hymenium, the stipe is composed of sterile hyphal...
that is up to 10 mm (0.393700787401575 in) long by 5 mm (0.196850393700787 in) wide, but it may be missing in some specimens. Dried fruit bodies become leathery and wrinkled.
Although the fruit bodies are generally considered by North American field guide
Field guide
A field guide is a book designed to help the reader identify wildlife or other objects of natural occurrence . It is generally designed to be brought into the 'field' or local area where such objects exist to help distinguish between similar objects...
s to be inedible, or of unknown edibility, in parts of Malaysia it is commonly eaten and even "prized for its edibility".
The spores are thin-walled, elliptical with narrowed ends, and covered with fine warts; they have dimensions of 10–22 by 8–10 μm. Both the spores and the asci
Ascus
An ascus is the sexual spore-bearing cell produced in ascomycete fungi. On average, asci normally contain eight ascospores, produced by a meiotic cell division followed, in most species, by a mitotic cell division. However, asci in some genera or species can number one , two, four, or multiples...
(spore-bearing cells) are nonamyloid
Amyloid (mycology)
In mycology the term amyloid refers to a crude chemical test using iodine in either Melzer's reagent or Lugol's solution, to produce a black to blue-black positive reaction. It is called amyloid because starch gives a similar reaction, and that reaction for starch is also called an amyloid reaction...
. The asci are narrow and typically 275–300 μm long. The paraphyses
Paraphyses
Paraphyses are part of the fertile spore-bearing layer in certain fungi. More specifically, paraphyses are sterile filamentous hyphal end cells composing part of the hymenium of Ascomycota and Basidiomycota interspersed among either the asci or basidia respectively, and not sufficiently...
(sterile cells interspersed among the asci in the hymenium) are slender threadlike. Ultrastructural studies have demonstrated that the development of the spore wall in G. rufa is similar to the genus Discina (in the Helvellaceae
Helvellaceae
The Helvellaceae are a family of ascomycete fungi, the best known members of which are the elfin saddles of the genus Helvella. Originally erected by Elias Magnus Fries in 1823 as Elvellacei, it contained many genera...
family) and to the other Sarcosomataceae
Sarcosomataceae
The Sarcosomataceae are a family of fungi in the order Pezizales. According to a 2008 estimate, the family contains 10 genera and 57 species. Most species are found in temperate areas, and are typically saprobic on rotten or buried wood....
, especially Plectania nannfeldtii
Plectania nannfeldtii
Plectania nannfeldtii, commonly known as Nannfeldt's Plectania, the black felt cup, or the black snowbank cup fungus, is a species of fungus in the family Sarcosomataceae. The fruit bodies of this species resemble small, black, goblet-shaped shallow cups up to wide, with stems up to long attached...
; both of these species have fine secondary wall spore ornaments.
Similar species
Galiella amurense is similar in appearance to G. rufa. It is found in north temperateTemperate
In geography, temperate or tepid latitudes of the globe lie between the tropics and the polar circles. The changes in these regions between summer and winter are generally relatively moderate, rather than extreme hot or cold...
Asia, where it grows on the rotting wood of Spruce
Spruce
A spruce is a tree of the genus Picea , a genus of about 35 species of coniferous evergreen trees in the Family Pinaceae, found in the northern temperate and boreal regions of the earth. Spruces are large trees, from tall when mature, and can be distinguished by their whorled branches and conical...
trees. It has larger ascospores than G. rufa, typically 26–41 by 13–16 µm. Bulgaria inquinans
Bulgaria inquinans
Bulgaria inquinans is a fungus from the family Bulgariaceae. It is commonly known by the name Black Bulgar.It grows on branches and bark of dead Oak and Hornbeam. The species can be found from October to March. It can be commonly found on felled trees stored in timber yards...
is similar in shape and size, but has a shiny black hymenium. Sarcosoma globosum, another species found in eastern North American, is black, has a more liquid interior than G. rufa, and is larger—up to 100 mm (3.9 in) across. Wolfina aurantiopsis has a shallower, woodier fruit body with a yellowish inner surface.
Habitat and distribution
Galiella rufa is a saprobic species, and grows either solitarily, but more usually in groups or in clusters on decaying hardwood branches and logs. The fungus fruits in late summer and autumn. The fungus has been noted to fruit readily on logs used for the cultivation of the Shitake mushroom. The fruit bodies are readily overlooked as they blend in with their surroundings.Galiella rufa is found in Midwest and eastern North America, and has been collected in areas between New York
New York
New York is a state in the Northeastern region of the United States. It is the nation's third most populous state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south, and by Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east...
and Minnesota
Minnesota
Minnesota is a U.S. state located in the Midwestern United States. The twelfth largest state of the U.S., it is the twenty-first most populous, with 5.3 million residents. Minnesota was carved out of the eastern half of the Minnesota Territory and admitted to the Union as the thirty-second state...
, Missouri
Missouri
Missouri is a US state located in the Midwestern United States, bordered by Iowa, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Kansas and Nebraska. With a 2010 population of 5,988,927, Missouri is the 18th most populous state in the nation and the fifth most populous in the Midwest. It...
and North Carolina
North Carolina
North Carolina is a state located in the southeastern United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west and Virginia to the north. North Carolina contains 100 counties. Its capital is Raleigh, and its largest city is Charlotte...
. The species is also found in Malaysia.
Bioactive compounds
Galiella rufa produces several structurally related hexaketide compounds that have attracted attention for their biological propertiesBiological activity
In pharmacology, biological activity or pharmacological activity describes the beneficial or adverse effects of a drug on living matter. When a drug is a complex chemical mixture, this activity is exerted by the substance's active ingredient or pharmacophore but can be modified by the other...
: pregaliellactone, galiellactone. The compounds have anti-nematicidal
Nematicide
A nematicide is a type of chemical pesticide used to kill parasitic nematodes.One common nematicide is obtained from neem cake, the residue obtained after cold-pressing the fruit and kernels of the neem tree. Known by several names in the world, the tree was first cultivated in India in ancient...
activity, killing the nematodes Caenorhabditis elegans
Caenorhabditis elegans
Caenorhabditis elegans is a free-living, transparent nematode , about 1 mm in length, which lives in temperate soil environments. Research into the molecular and developmental biology of C. elegans was begun in 1974 by Sydney Brenner and it has since been used extensively as a model...
and Meloidogyne incognita
Meloidogyne incognita
The Meloidogyne incognita is a nematode, a type of roundworm, in the family Heteroderidae. It is an important plant parasite classified in parasitology as a root-knot nematode, as it prefers to attack the root of its host plant....
. These compounds have been shown in laboratory tests to inhibit the early steps of the biosynthetic pathways induced by plant hormone
Plant hormone
Plant hormones are chemicals that regulate plant growth, which, in the UK, are termed 'plant growth substances'. Plant hormones are signal molecules produced within the plant, and occur in extremely low concentrations. Hormones regulate cellular processes in targeted cells locally and, when moved...
s known as gibberellic acid
Gibberellic acid
Gibberellic acid Gibberellic acid Gibberellic acid (also called Gibberellin A3, GA, and (GA3) is a hormone found in plants. Its chemical formula is C19H22O6. When purified, it is a white-to-pale-yellow solid....
s, and they also inhibit the germination
Germination
Germination is the process in which a plant or fungus emerges from a seed or spore, respectively, and begins growth. The most common example of germination is the sprouting of a seedling from a seed of an angiosperm or gymnosperm. However the growth of a sporeling from a spore, for example the...
of seeds of several plants. Galiellactone is additionally a highly selective and potent inhibitor of interleukin-6 (IL-6) signaling in HepG2 cells. IL-6 is a multifunctional cytokine
Cytokine
Cytokines are small cell-signaling protein molecules that are secreted by the glial cells of the nervous system and by numerous cells of the immune system and are a category of signaling molecules used extensively in intercellular communication...
which is produced by a large variety of cells and functions as a regulator of immune response, acute phase reactions, and hematopoiesis. Researchers are interested in the potential of small-molecule inhibitors (such as the ones produced by G. rufa) to interfere with the IL-6 signaling cascade that leads to the expression
Gene expression
Gene expression is the process by which information from a gene is used in the synthesis of a functional gene product. These products are often proteins, but in non-protein coding genes such as ribosomal RNA , transfer RNA or small nuclear RNA genes, the product is a functional RNA...
of genes involved in disease.