Gender in Bible translation
Encyclopedia
Gender in Bible translation concerns various issues, such as the gender of God and generic
references to people.
This article is concerned with the debates on how best to translate the Bible from its original language into English.
All parties involved state they wish to have faithful translation of the Bible, free from ideological bias, including bias related to the use of gendered-terms.
There are a variety of perspectives about what the Bible actually, and this can color the point of view of those who wish to translate it. For instance:
Believers are not the only audience for the Bible. Among its critics are those who read it as including canonical examples of irredeemably sexist writing (Katherine Kroger and Kate Millet, for example). However, there are also scholars who do not seek to judge the gender ideology of the Bible (for or against), but do seek to reliably infer its meaning and write about that in languages other than the original ones.
The outcome of the diversity of reader needs has been the publication of many different translations of the Bible. Different experts recommend different translations. The English language is no longer restricted to one Authorised Version.
. Hebrew uses only four consonants for the name — Yod-Heh-Waw-Heh (יהוה, YHWH) — hence it is called the Tetragrammaton
. Some modern English bibles render this as LORD — L capital, and ord in small capital font face. Others use Yahweh, and the old King James Version used Jehovah. In English, outside Bible translations, the tetragrammaton is often written as YHWH or YHVH.
The original meaning of this form is connected with the "I AM" of Exodus 3:14 (and it probably contains a Hebrew masculine verb prefix — the Y or yod). Sometimes this word is rendered into English by using Hebrew Adonai, instead of attempting to directly translate YHWH, following an ancient Jewish custom of respect.
The Hebrew word Adonai literally means my lord (with pseudo-plural), and is usually translated as Lord. The Hebrew names Elohim, El, Shaddai, and Yah are usually translated as God — with Elohim being the most common. Elyon translates as Most High.
There are a number of compound names for God. YHVH Tzevaot is translated as Lord of Hosts. YHVH Elohe tzevaot would be Lord God of Hosts. Among non-Orthodox Jews, there is a growing tendency to avoid the gender-in-English-language debate, and to simultaneously reclaim the vocabulary of Hebrew itself, by not translating these names in English prayers.
An example of a traditional translation is:
An alternative translation is:
The idea of God being an "It" rather than a "he" or "she" does have some support in Jewish, Christian and Islamic rationalist medieval thought, much of which was based on Neo-Aristotelian
philosophy. Some medieval philosophers of all three of these religions took great pains to make clear that God was in no way like a person, and that all apparently physical descriptions of God were only poetic metaphors.
In the Chinese language
, translators of the Christian Bible have created a new Chinese character
to act as a divine pronoun: 祂 (Pinyin
: tā). Tā, in essence, is the universal third person pronoun for all objects and persons. However, personhood (as well as gender) can be distinguished in writing. The normal pronoun for he, 他, is also used in generic cases. The radical
亻(rén) marks personhood (distinct from non-human referents), not simply gender alone. The radical in 祂, 礻(shì), marks the "elevated personhood" of divinity, without implying anything about the gender of the divinity referred to.
The 1611 Authorized Version uses two gender terms: "mankind" and "womankind".
Some critics object to this terminology. Particularly for those who believe feminist interpretation is misandrist (see above), terms such as “gender-neutral
” and “gender-sensitive” can be offensive. Critics charge that these terms imply traditional interpretations are not sensitive to women. Nevertheless, in the lack of acceptable alternatives these phrases are used in this article.
Over the last twenty years many Jewish prayerbooks have been rewritten to be gender-neutral (Reform, Reconstructionist Judaism) or gender-sensitive (Conservative). Examples are shown in the following translations of Psalm 24
. The following is a traditional translation excerpted from Siddur Sim Shalom
, a Conservative siddur. (Ed. Jules Harlow
)
A modern translation of Psalm 24 now appears in the revised editions of Siddur Sim Shalom.
Contemporary language has changed in many cases to reflect criticism of the use of the masculine gender, which has been characterized as discriminatory. Current style guides, such as APA
, MLA, NCTE
, and others, have published statements encouraging, and in some cases requiring, the use of gender-neutral language
, which avoids language this approach regards as sexist or class-distinctive.
Until recently, virtually all English translations of the Bible have used masculine nouns and pronouns both specifically (to refer to males) and generically (when the reference is not necessarily gender-specific). Recent examples of translations which incorporate gender-inclusive language include the New Revised Standard Version
, the Revised English Bible
, and Today's New International Version
.
at a meeting in Colorado Springs on 9 September 1997. Representatives of some major interest groups and academic institutions considered the contentious issues and came to a unanimous verdict, that has since been ratified by a wide range of Christian organizations, including denominations, translators and publishers. Among more than a hundred scholars and leaders who endorsed the Colorado Springs guidelines were: Charles Colson
, Jerry Falwell
, J. I. Packer
and John Wimber
.
Generic antecedent
Generic antecedents are representatives of classes, referred to in ordinary language by another word , in a situation in which gender is typically unknown or irrelevant. These mostly arise in generalizations and are particularly common in abstract, theoretical or strategic discourse...
references to people.
This article is concerned with the debates on how best to translate the Bible from its original language into English.
All parties involved state they wish to have faithful translation of the Bible, free from ideological bias, including bias related to the use of gendered-terms.
There are a variety of perspectives about what the Bible actually, and this can color the point of view of those who wish to translate it. For instance:
- Many secular people, Unitarian Universalists, and Reform Jews, hold that the Bible is conveyed in human languages that reflect human prejudices, not divine perspective. For example, "you shall not covet your neighbour's wife" shows a conceptual (not merely grammatical) androcentric social background. The gender egalitarian argues that modern attempts to promote gender equity in language provide the opportunity to render the biblical text more clearly, and without corruption from the host societies and languages of its original composition.
- Religious traditionalists disagree, and hold that the Bible is literally the word of God. The Torah, in particular, is said to be written by Moses under verbal inspiration from God. Indeed, in the Jewish tradition the largest point of view has been that the entire Torah is literally a quote from God (while other books of the Bible were written by divinely inspired prophets, but in their own words.)
-
- Religious traditionalists, in both the Jewish and Christian faiths, hold that the Bible teaches complementarian, rather than egalitarian, gender roleGender roleGender roles refer to the set of social and behavioral norms that are considered to be socially appropriate for individuals of a specific sex in the context of a specific culture, which differ widely between cultures and over time...
s. In this view, translation reform is not only unnecessary, it is motivated by secular ideologies that are contrary to biblical teaching. - In the Christian community, in particular, this idea takes on extra emphasis, as God is believed to be functionally male ("God the Father") and literally, biologically male ("God the Son, Jesus Christ"). These ideas from the four gospels are developed in the later books of the New TestamentNew TestamentThe New Testament is the second major division of the Christian biblical canon, the first such division being the much longer Old Testament....
, for example: "Now as the church submits to Christ, so also wives should submit to their husbands in everything. Husbands, love your wives, just as Christ loved the church and gave himself up for her." (Ephesians 5:24–25).
- Religious traditionalists, in both the Jewish and Christian faiths, hold that the Bible teaches complementarian, rather than egalitarian, gender role
- In between these points of view one can find the view of many Christians and Jews, who do believe that God inspired the prophetsRevelationIn religion and theology, revelation is the revealing or disclosing, through active or passive communication with a supernatural or a divine entity...
of the Bible, but that all of the prophets wrote in their own words. Further, religious liberals also accept the findings of modern Bible textual scholarship, which show that the text of the Bible developed over time, and thus also reflects human prejudices, and not always divine perspective.
Believers are not the only audience for the Bible. Among its critics are those who read it as including canonical examples of irredeemably sexist writing (Katherine Kroger and Kate Millet, for example). However, there are also scholars who do not seek to judge the gender ideology of the Bible (for or against), but do seek to reliably infer its meaning and write about that in languages other than the original ones.
The outcome of the diversity of reader needs has been the publication of many different translations of the Bible. Different experts recommend different translations. The English language is no longer restricted to one Authorised Version.
Translating the names of God
There are a number of ways to translate the names of God into English from HebrewHebrew language
Hebrew is a Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Culturally, is it considered by Jews and other religious groups as the language of the Jewish people, though other Jewish languages had originated among diaspora Jews, and the Hebrew language is also used by non-Jewish groups, such...
. Hebrew uses only four consonants for the name — Yod-Heh-Waw-Heh (יהוה, YHWH) — hence it is called the Tetragrammaton
Tetragrammaton
The term Tetragrammaton refers to the name of the God of Israel YHWH used in the Hebrew Bible.-Hebrew Bible:...
. Some modern English bibles render this as LORD — L capital, and ord in small capital font face. Others use Yahweh, and the old King James Version used Jehovah. In English, outside Bible translations, the tetragrammaton is often written as YHWH or YHVH.
The original meaning of this form is connected with the "I AM" of Exodus 3:14 (and it probably contains a Hebrew masculine verb prefix — the Y or yod). Sometimes this word is rendered into English by using Hebrew Adonai, instead of attempting to directly translate YHWH, following an ancient Jewish custom of respect.
The Hebrew word Adonai literally means my lord (with pseudo-plural), and is usually translated as Lord. The Hebrew names Elohim, El, Shaddai, and Yah are usually translated as God — with Elohim being the most common. Elyon translates as Most High.
There are a number of compound names for God. YHVH Tzevaot is translated as Lord of Hosts. YHVH Elohe tzevaot would be Lord God of Hosts. Among non-Orthodox Jews, there is a growing tendency to avoid the gender-in-English-language debate, and to simultaneously reclaim the vocabulary of Hebrew itself, by not translating these names in English prayers.
An example of a traditional translation is:
- "The earth belongs to the Lord, and all it contains; the world and its inhabitants." (Psalm 24PsalmsThe Book of Psalms , commonly referred to simply as Psalms, is a book of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Bible...
)
An alternative translation is:
- "The earth belongs to Adonai, and all it contains; the world and its inhabitants."
Third person pronouns for God
Many prayers use one or more of the names for God many times within the same paragraph. The first time it appears a proper name is used, while further instances use a third person pronoun (he, she or it). English speakers usually use masculine or feminine third person pronouns to refer to people, and the third person pronoun - "it" - to refer to non-people. Traditionally, in Jewish, Christian, and Muslim writing, the third-person pronoun "He" has been used to refer to God in English translations. In non-religious contexts, English speakers have generally used the word "he" as a substitute for a gender-neutral third person pronoun.The idea of God being an "It" rather than a "he" or "she" does have some support in Jewish, Christian and Islamic rationalist medieval thought, much of which was based on Neo-Aristotelian
Aristotelian view of God
The Aristotelian and Neo-Aristotelian views of God have been influential in Western intellectual history.-The Metaphysics:In his book on first philosophy, which most now call the Metaphysics, Aristotle discussed the meaning of "being as being". Aristotle concluded that "being" primarily refers to...
philosophy. Some medieval philosophers of all three of these religions took great pains to make clear that God was in no way like a person, and that all apparently physical descriptions of God were only poetic metaphors.
In the Chinese language
Chinese language
The Chinese language is a language or language family consisting of varieties which are mutually intelligible to varying degrees. Originally the indigenous languages spoken by the Han Chinese in China, it forms one of the branches of Sino-Tibetan family of languages...
, translators of the Christian Bible have created a new Chinese character
Chinese character
Chinese characters are logograms used in the writing of Chinese and Japanese , less frequently Korean , formerly Vietnamese , or other languages...
to act as a divine pronoun: 祂 (Pinyin
Pinyin
Pinyin is the official system to transcribe Chinese characters into the Roman alphabet in China, Malaysia, Singapore and Taiwan. It is also often used to teach Mandarin Chinese and spell Chinese names in foreign publications and used as an input method to enter Chinese characters into...
: tā). Tā, in essence, is the universal third person pronoun for all objects and persons. However, personhood (as well as gender) can be distinguished in writing. The normal pronoun for he, 他, is also used in generic cases. The radical
Radical (Chinese character)
A Chinese radical is a component of a Chinese character. The term may variously refer to the original semantic element of a character, or to any semantic element, or, loosely, to any element whatever its origin or purpose...
亻(rén) marks personhood (distinct from non-human referents), not simply gender alone. The radical in 祂, 礻(shì), marks the "elevated personhood" of divinity, without implying anything about the gender of the divinity referred to.
Translation "mankind" and "humankind"
Opponents of gender neutral language argue that readers of English Bible translations who are not familiar with the original languages, can be influenced by feminist assertions that generic masculine language is to be understood literally.The 1611 Authorized Version uses two gender terms: "mankind" and "womankind".
Gender-neutral and gender-sensitive prayerbooks
There are editions of prayer-books in the non-Orthodox denominations of Judaism, and in liberal denominations of Christianity, that have become sensitive to this issue. Several solutions have been proposed:- Translating God as both "He" and "She". A few experimental prayerbooks by Reconstructionist Jewish feministsReconstructionist JudaismReconstructionist Judaism is a modern American-based Jewish movement based on the ideas of Mordecai Kaplan . The movement views Judaism as a progressively evolving civilization. It originated as a branch of Conservative Judaism, before it splintered...
have tried alternating "he" and "she" within the same prayerbook, and sometimes even within the same prayer. This approach has failed to win widespread approval; critics object to it for many reasons, one of which is that this gives the appearance of dualism or goddess worship. Some liberal Protestant Christian denominations use this approach on occasion.
- Rewriting all prayers in the second person, only using the term "You". A few experimental prayerbooks by Reconstructionist Jewish feminists have tried this, but this approach has failed to win widespread approval.
- Gender-neutral translation involves rewriting prayers to remove all third-person pronouns. Sometimes this involves changing sentence and paragraph structure. This approach has been adopted by the editors of all new Reform and Reconstructionist Jewish prayerbooks. Some liberal Protestant Christians also have rewritten prayerbooks in this way. Conservative Judaism has rejected this approach because there are many cases where no such changes are possible without totally rewriting the sentence, thereby moving the English far from the Hebrew structure.
- Gender-neutral translation can also be accomplished by replacing third-person singular pronouns with third-person plural pronouns, repeating "God" each time to avoid "he". Some Christian translations of Scripture, including the New Jerusalem BibleNew Jerusalem BibleThe New Jerusalem Bible is a Roman Catholic translation of the Bible published in 1985 by Darton, Longman & Todd and Les Editions du Cerf, and edited by the Reverend Henry Wansbrough.- Contents :...
, use this technique when referring to humans, but naturally this technique is not used in the case of God.
- Gender-neutral translation can also be accomplished by replacing third-person singular pronouns with third-person plural pronouns, repeating "God" each time to avoid "he". Some Christian translations of Scripture, including the New Jerusalem Bible
- Gender-sensitive translation. This approach is a modified form of the above. In this approach, one rewrites most sentences to remove third-person pronouns, but occasionally the pronoun "he" is allowed in order to preserve readability and the original sentence structure. This is the approach taken by Conservative JudaismConservative JudaismConservative Judaism is a modern stream of Judaism that arose out of intellectual currents in Germany in the mid-19th century and took institutional form in the United States in the early 1900s.Conservative Judaism has its roots in the school of thought known as Positive-Historical Judaism,...
in the four most recent editions of the Siddur Sim ShalomSiddur Sim ShalomSiddur Sim Shalom may refer to any siddur in a family of siddurim, Jewish prayerbooks, and related commentaries on these siddurim, published by the Rabbinical Assembly and the United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism....
prayerbook family. Many inclusive-language Christian translations take this approach.
- Some Christian groups have created a new pronoun: God (subject or object), God's (possessive), Godself (reflexive). While the Catholic Church officially frowns on this, a significant number of American Catholic parishes alter the Mass responses by repeating "God" each time to avoid the third-person singular male pronoun. The use of the reflexive Godself is more rare.
- At least one bible translation from the Hebrew and Aramaic, the Hebraic Roots Version Scriptures(HRV) postulates that the Holy Spirit (the Ruach HaQodesh) is referred to in feminine terms unlike the masculine terms applied to the Father and the Son.
Some critics object to this terminology. Particularly for those who believe feminist interpretation is misandrist (see above), terms such as “gender-neutral
Gender-neutral
Gender neutrality describes the idea that language and other social institutions should avoid distinguishing people by their gender, in order to avoid discrimination arising from the impression that there are social roles for which one gender is more suited than the other...
” and “gender-sensitive” can be offensive. Critics charge that these terms imply traditional interpretations are not sensitive to women. Nevertheless, in the lack of acceptable alternatives these phrases are used in this article.
Over the last twenty years many Jewish prayerbooks have been rewritten to be gender-neutral (Reform, Reconstructionist Judaism) or gender-sensitive (Conservative). Examples are shown in the following translations of Psalm 24
Psalms
The Book of Psalms , commonly referred to simply as Psalms, is a book of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Bible...
. The following is a traditional translation excerpted from Siddur Sim Shalom
Siddur Sim Shalom
Siddur Sim Shalom may refer to any siddur in a family of siddurim, Jewish prayerbooks, and related commentaries on these siddurim, published by the Rabbinical Assembly and the United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism....
, a Conservative siddur. (Ed. Jules Harlow
Jules Harlow
Jules Harlow is a rabbi and liturgist; son of Henry and Lena Lipman Harlow. He was born in Sioux City, Iowa.In 1952 at Morningside College in Sioux City he earned a B.A., and from there went to New York City to study in the Jewish Theological Seminary of America; here he became ordained as a rabbi...
)
- A Psalm of David.
- The Earth belongs to the Lord, and all it contains; the world and its inhabitants.
- He founded it upon the seas, and set it firm upon flowing waters.
- Who may ascend the mountain of the Lord? Who may rise in His sanctuary?
- One who has a clean hand and a pure heart, who has not used God's name in false oaths, who has not sworn deceitfully.
- he shall receive a blessing from the God of his deliverance.
A modern translation of Psalm 24 now appears in the revised editions of Siddur Sim Shalom.
- A Psalm of David.
- The Earth and its grandeur belong to Adonai; the world and its inhabitants.
- God founded it upon the seas, and set it firm upon flowing waters.
- Who may ascend the mountain of Adonai? Who may rise in God's sanctuary?
- One who has clean hands and a pure heart, who has not used God's name in false oaths, who has not sworn deceitfully.
- shall receive a blessing from Adonai, a just reward from the God of deliverance.
Contemporary language has changed in many cases to reflect criticism of the use of the masculine gender, which has been characterized as discriminatory. Current style guides, such as APA
APA style
American Psychological Association Style is a set of rules that authors use when submitting papers for publications in APA journals. The APA states that they were developed to assist reading comprehension in the social and behavioral sciences, for clarity of communication, and to "move the idea...
, MLA, NCTE
National Council of Teachers of English
The National Council of Teachers of English is an American professional organization dedicated to "improving the teaching and learning of English and the language arts at all levels of education...
, and others, have published statements encouraging, and in some cases requiring, the use of gender-neutral language
Gender-neutral language
Gender-neutral language, gender-inclusive language, inclusive language, or gender neutrality is linguistic prescriptivism that aims to eliminate reference to gender in terms that describe people...
, which avoids language this approach regards as sexist or class-distinctive.
Until recently, virtually all English translations of the Bible have used masculine nouns and pronouns both specifically (to refer to males) and generically (when the reference is not necessarily gender-specific). Recent examples of translations which incorporate gender-inclusive language include the New Revised Standard Version
New Revised Standard Version
The New Revised Standard Version of the Bible is an English translation of the Bible released in 1989 in the USA. It is a thorough revision of the Revised Standard Version .There are three editions of the NRSV:...
, the Revised English Bible
Revised English Bible
The Revised English Bible is a 1989 English language translation of the Bible and updates the New English Bible, of 1970. As with its predecessor, it is published by the publishing houses of both Oxford University and Cambridge University....
, and Today's New International Version
Today's New International Version
Today's New International Version is an English translation of the Bible developed by the Committee on Bible Translation. The CBT also developed the New International Version in the 1970s. The TNIV is based on the NIV. It is explicitly Protestant like its predecessor; the deuterocanonical books...
.
| Original New International Version | Today's New International Version | We have different gifts, according to the grace given us. If a man's gift is prophesying, let him use it in proportion to his faith. If it is serving, let him serve; if it is teaching, let him teach; if it is encouraging, let him encourage; if it is contributing to the needs of others, let him give generously; if it is leadership, let him govern diligently; if it is showing mercy, let him do it cheerfully. | We have different gifts, according to the grace given to each of us. If your gift is prophesying, then prophesy in accordance with your faith; if it is serving, then serve; if it is teaching, then teach; if it is to encourage, then give encouragement; if it is giving, then give generously; if it is to lead, do it diligently; if it is to show mercy, do it cheerfully. |
|---|
The Colorado Springs Guidelines
In the USA, a group of conservative Bible scholars and translators produced the Colorado Springs GuidelinesColorado Springs Guidelines
The Colorado Springs Guidelines address gender issues in Bible translation, in response to "gender-neutral" Bible translations.They are not the product of any particular Christian denomination, but have been used, endorsed or cited by many Christian scholars, publishers and pastors...
at a meeting in Colorado Springs on 9 September 1997. Representatives of some major interest groups and academic institutions considered the contentious issues and came to a unanimous verdict, that has since been ratified by a wide range of Christian organizations, including denominations, translators and publishers. Among more than a hundred scholars and leaders who endorsed the Colorado Springs guidelines were: Charles Colson
Charles Colson
Charles Wendell "Chuck" Colson is a Christian leader, cultural commentator, and former Special Counsel for President Richard Nixon from 1969 to 1973....
, Jerry Falwell
Jerry Falwell
Jerry Lamon Falwell, Sr. was an evangelical fundamentalist Southern Baptist pastor, televangelist, and a conservative commentator from the United States. He was the founding pastor of the Thomas Road Baptist Church, a megachurch in Lynchburg, Virginia...
, J. I. Packer
J. I. Packer
James Innell Packer is a British-born Canadian Christian theologian in the low church Anglican and Reformed traditions. He currently serves as the Board of Governors' Professor of Theology at Regent College in Vancouver, British Columbia...
and John Wimber
John Wimber
John Richard Wimber was a musician, charismatic pastor and one of the founding leaders of the Vineyard Movement, a neocharismatic Evangelical Christian denomination which began in the USA and has now spread to many countries world-wide.-Life and ministry:John Richard Wimber was the son of Basil...
.
Catholic Christian Response
A more extensive statement to similar effect, Liturgicam Authenticam, was made by the Roman Catholic Church and published in 2001. It provides considerable detail of rationale, though less detail regarding specific translation decisions. It aims to guide translation into more than just the English language, and extends beyond translation of the Bible in its own context to translation of biblical texts in the context of the Roman Catholic liturgy, hence its name.External links
- The Gender-Neutral Bible Controversy
- Mandarin Pronoun Lesson with audio files, pinyin and characters.