Gender systems
Encyclopedia
Gender systems are systems of gender role
s in societies. A gender role is "everything that a person says and does to indicate to others or to the self the degree that one is either male, female, or androgynous. This includes but is not limited to sexual and erotic arousal and response." Gender identity
is one's own personal experience with gender role and the persistence of one’s individuality as male, female, or androgynous, especially in self-awareness and behavior.
Gender binary
is one example of a gender system. A gender binary is the classification of sex and gender into two distinct and disconnected forms of masculine and feminine. It can describe a social boundary that discourages people from crossing or mixing gender roles, or from creating a third form of gender expression altogether.It can also represent some of the prejudices which stigmatize intersex and transgendered people. The gender binary often involves gender roles and gender identities as a means of identifying a place for someone to fit in a male or female role in society
” were given that name to identify them as gender variants. The Europeans “attempted to explain the berdache from various functional perspectives...in terms of the contributions these sex/gender roles made to social structure or culture.” The term “berdache” was deemed inappropriate and insulting as time passed and awareness increased, so a new term was coined in 1990, “Two-Spirit
.” There were many roles for male and female Two-Spirits, productive specialization, supernatural sanction and gender variation. Some widespread features of the variety of gender roles are: transvestism, cross-gender occupation, same sex (but different gender) sexuality, recruitment to different roles, special languages, ritual roles, and associations with spiritual power. Cross-dressing
was the most visible marker but has proven a variable and less reliable indicator of status as a Two-Spirit
. However the main interest is that these people are an accepted portion of their society. In some cases they were even given special respect and various honors.
The roles varied greatly between tribes. For example, a male variant might have to wear male clothing during warfare, but women’s clothing any other time. These gender role
s were often decided at a young age. If a boy was interested in women’s activities, or vice-versa, a gender variant role would likely be undertaken in adulthood. “In some societies, same-sex sexual desire or practice did figure into the definition of one’s gender variant role, in others, it did not.”
In the case of the Navajo
, there were four genders: man, woman, masculine female-bodied nádleeh, and feminine male-bodied nádleeh. Intercourse between two people of different genders, regardless of biological sex, was not stigmatized. However, any sexual relationship between two of the same one gender was considered homosexual, and was strongly disapproved of. In the majority of American Indian
societies however, biological sex played no part in any gender variant role.
the anatomic sex
of their children. These dreams also sometimes included hints of their child’s future gender variant
status.
A boy who “acted strangely” before he participated in the boy’s puberty ceremonies in the Mohave tribe would be considered for the transvestite ceremony. Expressing interest in dolls, the domestic work of women, women’s gambling games, and inquiring about the female skirt were all ways a boy may be considered for the transvestite ceremony. Before the ceremony, relatives would try to dissuade him, but if the boy persists, they would assist in the preparations for the ceremony
The ceremony itself was meant to surprise the boy. It was a test of willingness. Other nearby settlements would receive word to come and watch. A circle of onlookers would sing special songs. If the boy danced like a woman, it confirmed his status as an alyha. He was then taken to a river to bathe, and was given a skirt to wear. The ceremony would permanently change his gender status within the tribe. He then took up a female name. The alyha would imitate many aspects of female life, including menstruation
, puberty observations
, pregnancy, and birth. The alyha were considered great healers, especially in curing sexually transmitted disease
s like syphilis
.
, produced in 2000, depicts the people of Juchitán de Zaragoza, Oaxaca, Mexico
. It follows the daily lives of the women as they run their businesses, wear colorfully bold traditional clothing and hold their heads firmly high as they carry the weight on top. The film clearly depicts the empowered women and the tolerance of homosexuality
and transgender
individuals. The community exemplifies an alternative gender system unlike the gender binary
that has been established throughout the world. On many occasions this community has been criticized and labeled as a matriarchy
; however, the individuals who are interviewed throughout the film tend to say otherwise. They strongly believe that their community is able to function because gender roles are not placed on individuals but rather that everyone is equal—for example there is no identifiable “bread winner”. Children are taken care of by whoever can help; food is cooked by anyone who is able to and drinking beer and smoking is not only okay for the “men” of the community. Gays, lesbians, and transgender
tend to feel more accepted in this alternative gender system. Juchitán's
society operates under a more egalitarian gender system in which men and women have different, but not exclusive roles, and in which these roles are not necessarily expected. Due to liberal gender performance, third gender
s also have more prominence in Juchitán
than other parts of the world.
are the shamans of the Mapuche
people of Chile
, and are viewed to a large extent by both Mapuche
and the Chilean state as keepers of Mapuche political, cultural, and spiritual tradition and power. In many ways the machi
represent an alternative gender system in that homosexual acts are more accepted, gender switching occurs, and the practice of polygamy
took place. However, though it appears there is more gender freedom, gender switching occurs based on different shamanic practices performed, and the gender associated with the practice is either derived from physical sex based on reproduction etc. or from the hegemonic
gender system of the nation of Chile
. For example, political participation has become a masculine practice, while spiritual practices are considered feminine. While one does not have to be a physical "male" or "female" necessarily to perform these practices, they must channel that gender to perform them.
The machi
were inevitably influenced by the dominant western gender system of Chile
through state sponsored evangelization, (most Mapuche
today are Catholic
) and by the Indigenous Law. The Indigenous Law further politicized the machi
and further subjected them in national discourse to the gender norms of the Chilean state, changing the way that machi
perform gender. "Machi juggle various gendered systems of knowledge and identities according to their intentions, who is present, and in what context"
India
, there also exists different concepts of what is socially accepted when gender is in question. When compared to the native North Americans, the gender system is essentially binary, but the ideas themselves are quite different from Western thoughts. These ideas often come from religious contexts. Some Hindu origin myths feature androgynous or hermaphroditic ancestors. Ancient poets often showed this idea by presenting images with mixed physical attributes between the two sexes. These themes still exist in the culture, and are even still institutionalized. The most prominent group are the hijras.
, the term hijra
is most commonly meant as “eunuch” or interesexed, and is a term of sexual impotence. In the culture’s definition, a hijra is one born as a male, but adopts the clothing, behavior, and occupations of women. Their status in society is neither male nor female, neither man nor woman. When hijras are asked whether or not they are male or female, most often they respond with comments like “We hijras are like women”, demonstrating their place in culture. Hijras walk, gesture, speak, and use facial expressions more common to women in India. They even take feminine names as part of their gender transformation. Becoming a Hijra however is not outside of Indian society. Being a hijra means making a commitment that gives social support and some economic security, as well as a cultural meaning, linking them to the larger world.
“A male who is not born biologically intersexed who wishes to become a hijra must transform his sex/gender through an emasculation operation”. This operation is a rebirth for the hijras, and contains elements of childbirth to symbolize this. The process includes castration
, bloodletting
, and special rituals. Among the hijra society there is a hierarchy of gurus, or teachers, and chelas, or disciples. In order for one to be accepted into the hijra society they must be sponsored by a guru, who in turn teaches them and helps them form a family.
culturally. Their development is quite different however, and their existence is much less prominent. It is a girl’s choice to become a sādhin. They wear men’s clothing and keep their hair short. They commonly keep their female name and is still treated as a female in society, although the status of sādhin, like hijra, transcends the gender labels of India. A sādhin candidate must be a virgin, and swear to celibacy.
ian culture does follow a gender binary
, just not the traditional western one. Rather than men and women, certain areas of Brazil have men and not-men. Men are masculine, and anyone who displays feminine qualities falls under the category of not-man. This concept is a result of sexual penetration as the deciding factor of gender. Any one who is penetrated becomes feminine, and is not-male. Everyone else, regardless of sexual preference, remains a male in Brazilian society.
The most commonly discussed group of people when discussing gender in Brazil are the travestí
, or transgender
prostitutes. Unlike in native North America and India, the existence of the travestí is not from a religious context. It is an individual’s choice to become a travestí. Born as males, they go to extensive measures to try to appear female. Some inject female hormones and get silicone implants to more closely imitate the curves of the Brazilian female body. The travestí recognize they are not female, and that they cannot ever become female. Instead, their culture is based on this man/not-man premise. Unlike hijras
, the travestís do not want to get rid of their penises. They do, however, manipulate themselves to hide their genitalia. They feel that castration
would not get them any closer to becoming a woman.
Homosexuality also follows the man/not-man binary. If a travestí has a boyfriend, that man is not considered a homosexual, because the travestí is not a man. If, at any time, the boyfriend expresses interest in the travestí penis, the travestí will immediately lose interest in him as a partner because he has also become a “not-man.”
there are many different terms for gender role
s, for example in Tahiti
the role is called māhū. In Samoa
the male gender variant is called fa’afafine which means “like a woman.” Tuva and Tonga have terms also. In Tonga the term is fakaleiti and in Tuva the term is pinapinnaine. All of these terms are used when a male engages in women's work, clothes, speech tones, and nonverbal gestures. However in Polynesia
when a man crosses genders and “acts like a woman” he is not viewed as becoming a woman, but is suspended between male and female, being neither at the same time, but having the elements of both. They tend to be effeminate and interested in women’s household tasks, but do not dress exclusively as women. They often seek oral sex with men, who may ridicule them in public, but seek them out for pleasure in private.
Kathoey
is the term used by both males and females that allows them to be alongside the normative masculine and feminine identities. Up until the 1970s hermaphrodites and cross-dressing men and women could all come under the term kathoey, however the term has been dropped for the cross-dressing masculine females who are now referred to as tom. As a result of the shifts, kathoey today is most commonly understood as a male transgender
category. Kathoey is derived from the Buddhist myth that describes three original human sex/genders male, female, and a biological hermaphrodite or kathoey. Kathoey is not defined as merely being a variant between male or female but as an independently existing third sex.
. Bakla are males with a feminine spirit, or core identity, who cross-dress and are assumed to take the receiving role in sex. In the Philippines, a “real man” is simply one who is not bakla. Since there are negative connotations of local terms for gender diversity, many bakla prefer to self-identify as gay, rather than a new gender. The baklas’ partners are not considered homosexual by Philippian society. Over time, baklas have tried to gain status as a third sex or gender
as an attempt to normalize their nonconformity and be equal to males and females in society.
there was no concept of gender and no gender system at all before colonialism
. She argues that colonial powers used a gender system as a tool for domination and fundamentally changing social relations among the indigenous.
, homosexual behavior moves one from one part of a gender binary to another.
Homosexuality, and its effects on the individual’s place in society is sometimes drastically different in various other cultures. In certain Sambia
people of New Guinea for example, it is believed that a boy is unable to reach puberty
or maturity without first ingesting the semen
, considered life-force, of an older male. In addition, these Sambian people believe that a man is unable to replenish his semen on his own, so the ritual continues until a certain time, usually marriage, when he is told of a tree that exudes a milky semen-like sap he may ingest instead.
In Basotho society in contemporary Lesotho
, girls and women may exchange long kisses, engage in cunnilingus
, and even fall in love and form a marriage-like union. In this society however, sex requires penetration, and marriage requires a man as a husband. Therefore, in this context, there is no concept of lesbianism.
in which physical violence is specifically targeting the victim's gender. These violent acts are usually aimed at women or more typically of transgender
victims, but are not solely limited to only these groups of people. This act of violence occurs in the public as well as the private domain and can be easily overlooked. Countless deaths have resulted from these severe crimes as seen in the film Two Spirits. Organizations nationwide such as California Coalition Against Sexual Assault
help to support and aid the Latino communities in particular to put an end to domestic violence. It is also a matter related to the dominant gender system, which often underlies the motives for gendered violence. The dominant gender system also creates structural violence
.
Gender role
Gender roles refer to the set of social and behavioral norms that are considered to be socially appropriate for individuals of a specific sex in the context of a specific culture, which differ widely between cultures and over time...
s in societies. A gender role is "everything that a person says and does to indicate to others or to the self the degree that one is either male, female, or androgynous. This includes but is not limited to sexual and erotic arousal and response." Gender identity
Gender identity
A gender identity is the way in which an individual self-identifies with a gender category, for example, as being either a man or a woman, or in some cases being neither, which can be distinct from biological sex. Basic gender identity is usually formed by age three and is extremely difficult to...
is one's own personal experience with gender role and the persistence of one’s individuality as male, female, or androgynous, especially in self-awareness and behavior.
Gender binary
Gender binary
The gender binary is the classification of sex and gender into two distinct and disconnected forms of masculine and feminine. It is one general type of a gender system. It can describe a social boundary that discourages people from crossing or mixing gender roles, or from creating other third ...
is one example of a gender system. A gender binary is the classification of sex and gender into two distinct and disconnected forms of masculine and feminine. It can describe a social boundary that discourages people from crossing or mixing gender roles, or from creating a third form of gender expression altogether.It can also represent some of the prejudices which stigmatize intersex and transgendered people. The gender binary often involves gender roles and gender identities as a means of identifying a place for someone to fit in a male or female role in society
Non-Western gender systems
In cultures where the gender binary is prominent and important, transgendered people are a major exception to the normals of the society. Intersexuals, or people who cannot be easily determined male or female, are one obvious deviation. Other deviations come from gay, lesbian, cross-dressing, and transsexuals. Other cultures have their own deviations from the Western gender binary. In some areas in the world, both outside and inside of Western civilization there exists many non-Western sex-gender systems. These systems do not follow the traditional gender binary of Western cultures.North American Indian
When European settlers first arrived in North America, they discovered different American Indian tribes had different concepts of sex and gender. In the Native North American society “berdachesTwo-Spirit
Two-Spirit People , is an English term that emerged in 1990 out of the third annual inter-tribal Native American/First Nations gay/lesbian American conference in Winnipeg. It describes Indigenous North Americans who fulfill one of many mixed gender roles found traditionally among many Native...
” were given that name to identify them as gender variants. The Europeans “attempted to explain the berdache from various functional perspectives...in terms of the contributions these sex/gender roles made to social structure or culture.” The term “berdache” was deemed inappropriate and insulting as time passed and awareness increased, so a new term was coined in 1990, “Two-Spirit
Two-Spirit
Two-Spirit People , is an English term that emerged in 1990 out of the third annual inter-tribal Native American/First Nations gay/lesbian American conference in Winnipeg. It describes Indigenous North Americans who fulfill one of many mixed gender roles found traditionally among many Native...
.” There were many roles for male and female Two-Spirits, productive specialization, supernatural sanction and gender variation. Some widespread features of the variety of gender roles are: transvestism, cross-gender occupation, same sex (but different gender) sexuality, recruitment to different roles, special languages, ritual roles, and associations with spiritual power. Cross-dressing
Cross-dressing
Cross-dressing is the wearing of clothing and other accoutrement commonly associated with a gender within a particular society that is seen as different than the one usually presented by the dresser...
was the most visible marker but has proven a variable and less reliable indicator of status as a Two-Spirit
Two-Spirit
Two-Spirit People , is an English term that emerged in 1990 out of the third annual inter-tribal Native American/First Nations gay/lesbian American conference in Winnipeg. It describes Indigenous North Americans who fulfill one of many mixed gender roles found traditionally among many Native...
. However the main interest is that these people are an accepted portion of their society. In some cases they were even given special respect and various honors.
The roles varied greatly between tribes. For example, a male variant might have to wear male clothing during warfare, but women’s clothing any other time. These gender role
Gender role
Gender roles refer to the set of social and behavioral norms that are considered to be socially appropriate for individuals of a specific sex in the context of a specific culture, which differ widely between cultures and over time...
s were often decided at a young age. If a boy was interested in women’s activities, or vice-versa, a gender variant role would likely be undertaken in adulthood. “In some societies, same-sex sexual desire or practice did figure into the definition of one’s gender variant role, in others, it did not.”
In the case of the Navajo
Navajo people
The Navajo of the Southwestern United States are the largest single federally recognized tribe of the United States of America. The Navajo Nation has 300,048 enrolled tribal members. The Navajo Nation constitutes an independent governmental body which manages the Navajo Indian reservation in the...
, there were four genders: man, woman, masculine female-bodied nádleeh, and feminine male-bodied nádleeh. Intercourse between two people of different genders, regardless of biological sex, was not stigmatized. However, any sexual relationship between two of the same one gender was considered homosexual, and was strongly disapproved of. In the majority of American Indian
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian inhabitants of North and South America, their descendants and other ethnic groups who are identified with those peoples. Indigenous peoples are known in Canada as Aboriginal peoples, and in the United States as Native Americans...
societies however, biological sex played no part in any gender variant role.
The Mohave Alyha
In Mohave society, pregnant women believed they had dreams forecastingForecasting
Forecasting is the process of making statements about events whose actual outcomes have not yet been observed. A commonplace example might be estimation for some variable of interest at some specified future date. Prediction is a similar, but more general term...
the anatomic sex
Sex
In biology, sex is a process of combining and mixing genetic traits, often resulting in the specialization of organisms into a male or female variety . Sexual reproduction involves combining specialized cells to form offspring that inherit traits from both parents...
of their children. These dreams also sometimes included hints of their child’s future gender variant
Gender variance
Gender variance, or gender nonconformity, is behaviour or gender expression that does not conform to dominant gender norms of male and female...
status.
A boy who “acted strangely” before he participated in the boy’s puberty ceremonies in the Mohave tribe would be considered for the transvestite ceremony. Expressing interest in dolls, the domestic work of women, women’s gambling games, and inquiring about the female skirt were all ways a boy may be considered for the transvestite ceremony. Before the ceremony, relatives would try to dissuade him, but if the boy persists, they would assist in the preparations for the ceremony
The ceremony itself was meant to surprise the boy. It was a test of willingness. Other nearby settlements would receive word to come and watch. A circle of onlookers would sing special songs. If the boy danced like a woman, it confirmed his status as an alyha. He was then taken to a river to bathe, and was given a skirt to wear. The ceremony would permanently change his gender status within the tribe. He then took up a female name. The alyha would imitate many aspects of female life, including menstruation
Menstruation
Menstruation is the shedding of the uterine lining . It occurs on a regular basis in sexually reproductive-age females of certain mammal species. This article focuses on human menstruation.-Overview:...
, puberty observations
Puberty
Puberty is the process of physical changes by which a child's body matures into an adult body capable of reproduction, as initiated by hormonal signals from the brain to the gonads; the ovaries in a girl, the testes in a boy...
, pregnancy, and birth. The alyha were considered great healers, especially in curing sexually transmitted disease
Sexually transmitted disease
Sexually transmitted disease , also known as a sexually transmitted infection or venereal disease , is an illness that has a significant probability of transmission between humans by means of human sexual behavior, including vaginal intercourse, oral sex, and anal sex...
s like syphilis
Syphilis
Syphilis is a sexually transmitted infection caused by the spirochete bacterium Treponema pallidum subspecies pallidum. The primary route of transmission is through sexual contact; however, it may also be transmitted from mother to fetus during pregnancy or at birth, resulting in congenital syphilis...
.
Juchitán, Oaxaca, Mexico
A documentary film entitled Blossoms of FireBlossoms of Fire
Blossoms of Fire is a 2000 documentary film about the people of Juchitán, Oaxaca, Mexico.-About the film:...
, produced in 2000, depicts the people of Juchitán de Zaragoza, Oaxaca, Mexico
Juchitán de Zaragoza
Juchitán de Zaragoza is an indigenous town in the southeast of the Mexican state of Oaxaca.It is part of the Juchitán District in the west of the Istmo de Tehuantepec region...
. It follows the daily lives of the women as they run their businesses, wear colorfully bold traditional clothing and hold their heads firmly high as they carry the weight on top. The film clearly depicts the empowered women and the tolerance of homosexuality
Homosexuality
Homosexuality is romantic or sexual attraction or behavior between members of the same sex or gender. As a sexual orientation, homosexuality refers to "an enduring pattern of or disposition to experience sexual, affectional, or romantic attractions" primarily or exclusively to people of the same...
and transgender
Transgender
Transgender is a general term applied to a variety of individuals, behaviors, and groups involving tendencies to vary from culturally conventional gender roles....
individuals. The community exemplifies an alternative gender system unlike the gender binary
Gender binary
The gender binary is the classification of sex and gender into two distinct and disconnected forms of masculine and feminine. It is one general type of a gender system. It can describe a social boundary that discourages people from crossing or mixing gender roles, or from creating other third ...
that has been established throughout the world. On many occasions this community has been criticized and labeled as a matriarchy
Matriarchy
A matriarchy is a society in which females, especially mothers, have the central roles of political leadership and moral authority. It is also sometimes called a gynocratic or gynocentric society....
; however, the individuals who are interviewed throughout the film tend to say otherwise. They strongly believe that their community is able to function because gender roles are not placed on individuals but rather that everyone is equal—for example there is no identifiable “bread winner”. Children are taken care of by whoever can help; food is cooked by anyone who is able to and drinking beer and smoking is not only okay for the “men” of the community. Gays, lesbians, and transgender
Transgender
Transgender is a general term applied to a variety of individuals, behaviors, and groups involving tendencies to vary from culturally conventional gender roles....
tend to feel more accepted in this alternative gender system. Juchitán's
Juchitán de Zaragoza
Juchitán de Zaragoza is an indigenous town in the southeast of the Mexican state of Oaxaca.It is part of the Juchitán District in the west of the Istmo de Tehuantepec region...
society operates under a more egalitarian gender system in which men and women have different, but not exclusive roles, and in which these roles are not necessarily expected. Due to liberal gender performance, third gender
Third gender
The terms third gender and third sex describe individuals who are categorized as neither man nor woman, as well as the social category present in those societies who recognize three or more genders...
s also have more prominence in Juchitán
Juchitán de Zaragoza
Juchitán de Zaragoza is an indigenous town in the southeast of the Mexican state of Oaxaca.It is part of the Juchitán District in the west of the Istmo de Tehuantepec region...
than other parts of the world.
Machi (Mapuche Shamans) of Chile
The machiMachi
-Mythology and religious tradition:*Machi, a minor Biblical figure appearing in Numbers 13:15*Machi , the shaman of the Mapuche indigenous culture.*Machi, a Japanese neighborhood district 田丁 or address.-Popular culture:...
are the shamans of the Mapuche
Mapuche
The Mapuche are a group of indigenous inhabitants of south-central Chile and southwestern Argentina. They constitute a wide-ranging ethnicity composed of various groups who shared a common social, religious and economic structure, as well as a common linguistic heritage. Their influence extended...
people of Chile
Chile
Chile ,officially the Republic of Chile , is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow coastal strip between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far...
, and are viewed to a large extent by both Mapuche
Mapuche
The Mapuche are a group of indigenous inhabitants of south-central Chile and southwestern Argentina. They constitute a wide-ranging ethnicity composed of various groups who shared a common social, religious and economic structure, as well as a common linguistic heritage. Their influence extended...
and the Chilean state as keepers of Mapuche political, cultural, and spiritual tradition and power. In many ways the machi
Machi (Shaman)
A machi is a traditional healer and religious leader in the Mapuche culture of Chile and Argentina. Machis play significant roles in Mapuche religion. Women are more commonly machis than men.-Description:...
represent an alternative gender system in that homosexual acts are more accepted, gender switching occurs, and the practice of polygamy
Polygamy
Polygamy is a marriage which includes more than two partners...
took place. However, though it appears there is more gender freedom, gender switching occurs based on different shamanic practices performed, and the gender associated with the practice is either derived from physical sex based on reproduction etc. or from the hegemonic
Hegemony
Hegemony is an indirect form of imperial dominance in which the hegemon rules sub-ordinate states by the implied means of power rather than direct military force. In Ancient Greece , hegemony denoted the politico–military dominance of a city-state over other city-states...
gender system of the nation of Chile
Chile
Chile ,officially the Republic of Chile , is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow coastal strip between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far...
. For example, political participation has become a masculine practice, while spiritual practices are considered feminine. While one does not have to be a physical "male" or "female" necessarily to perform these practices, they must channel that gender to perform them.
The machi
Machi (Shaman)
A machi is a traditional healer and religious leader in the Mapuche culture of Chile and Argentina. Machis play significant roles in Mapuche religion. Women are more commonly machis than men.-Description:...
were inevitably influenced by the dominant western gender system of Chile
Chile
Chile ,officially the Republic of Chile , is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow coastal strip between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far...
through state sponsored evangelization, (most Mapuche
Mapuche
The Mapuche are a group of indigenous inhabitants of south-central Chile and southwestern Argentina. They constitute a wide-ranging ethnicity composed of various groups who shared a common social, religious and economic structure, as well as a common linguistic heritage. Their influence extended...
today are Catholic
Catholic
The word catholic comes from the Greek phrase , meaning "on the whole," "according to the whole" or "in general", and is a combination of the Greek words meaning "about" and meaning "whole"...
) and by the Indigenous Law. The Indigenous Law further politicized the machi
Machi
-Mythology and religious tradition:*Machi, a minor Biblical figure appearing in Numbers 13:15*Machi , the shaman of the Mapuche indigenous culture.*Machi, a Japanese neighborhood district 田丁 or address.-Popular culture:...
and further subjected them in national discourse to the gender norms of the Chilean state, changing the way that machi
Machi (Shaman)
A machi is a traditional healer and religious leader in the Mapuche culture of Chile and Argentina. Machis play significant roles in Mapuche religion. Women are more commonly machis than men.-Description:...
perform gender. "Machi juggle various gendered systems of knowledge and identities according to their intentions, who is present, and in what context"
Indian Hindu
In HinduHindu
Hindu refers to an identity associated with the philosophical, religious and cultural systems that are indigenous to the Indian subcontinent. As used in the Constitution of India, the word "Hindu" is also attributed to all persons professing any Indian religion...
India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
, there also exists different concepts of what is socially accepted when gender is in question. When compared to the native North Americans, the gender system is essentially binary, but the ideas themselves are quite different from Western thoughts. These ideas often come from religious contexts. Some Hindu origin myths feature androgynous or hermaphroditic ancestors. Ancient poets often showed this idea by presenting images with mixed physical attributes between the two sexes. These themes still exist in the culture, and are even still institutionalized. The most prominent group are the hijras.
Hijras
“The recognition of more than two sex/genders is recorded in India as early as the eighth century BCE”. In modern IndiaIndia
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
, the term hijra
Hijra (South Asia)
In the culture of South Asia, hijras or chakka in Kannada, khusra in Punjabi and kojja in Telugu are physiological males who have feminine gender identity, women's clothing and other feminine gender roles. Hijras have a long recorded history in the Indian subcontinent, from the antiquity, as...
is most commonly meant as “eunuch” or interesexed, and is a term of sexual impotence. In the culture’s definition, a hijra is one born as a male, but adopts the clothing, behavior, and occupations of women. Their status in society is neither male nor female, neither man nor woman. When hijras are asked whether or not they are male or female, most often they respond with comments like “We hijras are like women”, demonstrating their place in culture. Hijras walk, gesture, speak, and use facial expressions more common to women in India. They even take feminine names as part of their gender transformation. Becoming a Hijra however is not outside of Indian society. Being a hijra means making a commitment that gives social support and some economic security, as well as a cultural meaning, linking them to the larger world.
“A male who is not born biologically intersexed who wishes to become a hijra must transform his sex/gender through an emasculation operation”. This operation is a rebirth for the hijras, and contains elements of childbirth to symbolize this. The process includes castration
Castration
Castration is any action, surgical, chemical, or otherwise, by which a male loses the functions of the testicles or a female loses the functions of the ovaries.-Humans:...
, bloodletting
Bloodletting
Bloodletting is the withdrawal of often little quantities of blood from a patient to cure or prevent illness and disease. Bloodletting was based on an ancient system of medicine in which blood and other bodily fluid were considered to be "humors" the proper balance of which maintained health...
, and special rituals. Among the hijra society there is a hierarchy of gurus, or teachers, and chelas, or disciples. In order for one to be accepted into the hijra society they must be sponsored by a guru, who in turn teaches them and helps them form a family.
Sādhin
The sādhin are similar to HijrasHijra (South Asia)
In the culture of South Asia, hijras or chakka in Kannada, khusra in Punjabi and kojja in Telugu are physiological males who have feminine gender identity, women's clothing and other feminine gender roles. Hijras have a long recorded history in the Indian subcontinent, from the antiquity, as...
culturally. Their development is quite different however, and their existence is much less prominent. It is a girl’s choice to become a sādhin. They wear men’s clothing and keep their hair short. They commonly keep their female name and is still treated as a female in society, although the status of sādhin, like hijra, transcends the gender labels of India. A sādhin candidate must be a virgin, and swear to celibacy.
Brazil
Like in Indian culture, BrazilBrazil
Brazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people...
ian culture does follow a gender binary
Gender binary
The gender binary is the classification of sex and gender into two distinct and disconnected forms of masculine and feminine. It is one general type of a gender system. It can describe a social boundary that discourages people from crossing or mixing gender roles, or from creating other third ...
, just not the traditional western one. Rather than men and women, certain areas of Brazil have men and not-men. Men are masculine, and anyone who displays feminine qualities falls under the category of not-man. This concept is a result of sexual penetration as the deciding factor of gender. Any one who is penetrated becomes feminine, and is not-male. Everyone else, regardless of sexual preference, remains a male in Brazilian society.
The most commonly discussed group of people when discussing gender in Brazil are the travestí
Travesti
In cultures of South America, a is a person who was born male, has a feminine gender identity and is primarily sexually attracted to non-feminine men . In South America the distinction between gender identity and sexual orientation isn't usually made.In french countries, Travesti means anyone who...
, or transgender
Transgender
Transgender is a general term applied to a variety of individuals, behaviors, and groups involving tendencies to vary from culturally conventional gender roles....
prostitutes. Unlike in native North America and India, the existence of the travestí is not from a religious context. It is an individual’s choice to become a travestí. Born as males, they go to extensive measures to try to appear female. Some inject female hormones and get silicone implants to more closely imitate the curves of the Brazilian female body. The travestí recognize they are not female, and that they cannot ever become female. Instead, their culture is based on this man/not-man premise. Unlike hijras
Hijra (South Asia)
In the culture of South Asia, hijras or chakka in Kannada, khusra in Punjabi and kojja in Telugu are physiological males who have feminine gender identity, women's clothing and other feminine gender roles. Hijras have a long recorded history in the Indian subcontinent, from the antiquity, as...
, the travestís do not want to get rid of their penises. They do, however, manipulate themselves to hide their genitalia. They feel that castration
Castration
Castration is any action, surgical, chemical, or otherwise, by which a male loses the functions of the testicles or a female loses the functions of the ovaries.-Humans:...
would not get them any closer to becoming a woman.
Homosexuality also follows the man/not-man binary. If a travestí has a boyfriend, that man is not considered a homosexual, because the travestí is not a man. If, at any time, the boyfriend expresses interest in the travestí penis, the travestí will immediately lose interest in him as a partner because he has also become a “not-man.”
Polynesia
In PolynesiaPolynesia
Polynesia is a subregion of Oceania, made up of over 1,000 islands scattered over the central and southern Pacific Ocean. The indigenous people who inhabit the islands of Polynesia are termed Polynesians and they share many similar traits including language, culture and beliefs...
there are many different terms for gender role
Gender role
Gender roles refer to the set of social and behavioral norms that are considered to be socially appropriate for individuals of a specific sex in the context of a specific culture, which differ widely between cultures and over time...
s, for example in Tahiti
Tahiti
Tahiti is the largest island in the Windward group of French Polynesia, located in the archipelago of the Society Islands in the southern Pacific Ocean. It is the economic, cultural and political centre of French Polynesia. The island was formed from volcanic activity and is high and mountainous...
the role is called māhū. In Samoa
Samoa
Samoa , officially the Independent State of Samoa, formerly known as Western Samoa is a country encompassing the western part of the Samoan Islands in the South Pacific Ocean. It became independent from New Zealand in 1962. The two main islands of Samoa are Upolu and one of the biggest islands in...
the male gender variant is called fa’afafine which means “like a woman.” Tuva and Tonga have terms also. In Tonga the term is fakaleiti and in Tuva the term is pinapinnaine. All of these terms are used when a male engages in women's work, clothes, speech tones, and nonverbal gestures. However in Polynesia
Polynesia
Polynesia is a subregion of Oceania, made up of over 1,000 islands scattered over the central and southern Pacific Ocean. The indigenous people who inhabit the islands of Polynesia are termed Polynesians and they share many similar traits including language, culture and beliefs...
when a man crosses genders and “acts like a woman” he is not viewed as becoming a woman, but is suspended between male and female, being neither at the same time, but having the elements of both. They tend to be effeminate and interested in women’s household tasks, but do not dress exclusively as women. They often seek oral sex with men, who may ridicule them in public, but seek them out for pleasure in private.
Thailand
Kathoey
Kathoey or katoey is a male-to-female transgender person or an effeminate gay male in Thailand. Related phrases include sao praphet song , or phet thi sam . The word kathoey is thought to be of Khmer origin...
is the term used by both males and females that allows them to be alongside the normative masculine and feminine identities. Up until the 1970s hermaphrodites and cross-dressing men and women could all come under the term kathoey, however the term has been dropped for the cross-dressing masculine females who are now referred to as tom. As a result of the shifts, kathoey today is most commonly understood as a male transgender
Transgender
Transgender is a general term applied to a variety of individuals, behaviors, and groups involving tendencies to vary from culturally conventional gender roles....
category. Kathoey is derived from the Buddhist myth that describes three original human sex/genders male, female, and a biological hermaphrodite or kathoey. Kathoey is not defined as merely being a variant between male or female but as an independently existing third sex.
Philippines
The notable gender variant role in the Philippines is the baklaBakla (Philippines)
In the Philippines, a baklà is a male-bodied person who is exclusively attracted to men. Baklas are often considered a third gender, and many baklas display feminine mannerisms and dress as women. Some actually identify as women....
. Bakla are males with a feminine spirit, or core identity, who cross-dress and are assumed to take the receiving role in sex. In the Philippines, a “real man” is simply one who is not bakla. Since there are negative connotations of local terms for gender diversity, many bakla prefer to self-identify as gay, rather than a new gender. The baklas’ partners are not considered homosexual by Philippian society. Over time, baklas have tried to gain status as a third sex or gender
Third gender
The terms third gender and third sex describe individuals who are categorized as neither man nor woman, as well as the social category present in those societies who recognize three or more genders...
as an attempt to normalize their nonconformity and be equal to males and females in society.
Africa
Lugones observes that among the Yoruba peopleYoruba people
The Yoruba people are one of the largest ethnic groups in West Africa. The majority of the Yoruba speak the Yoruba language...
there was no concept of gender and no gender system at all before colonialism
Colonialism
Colonialism is the establishment, maintenance, acquisition and expansion of colonies in one territory by people from another territory. It is a process whereby the metropole claims sovereignty over the colony and the social structure, government, and economics of the colony are changed by...
. She argues that colonial powers used a gender system as a tool for domination and fundamentally changing social relations among the indigenous.
The cultural definition of homosexuality
In cultures where the difference between male and female in the gender binary is masculine and feminine, it is important to look at how same-sex sexuality changes between cultures. In some cultures, like the travestíTravesti
In cultures of South America, a is a person who was born male, has a feminine gender identity and is primarily sexually attracted to non-feminine men . In South America the distinction between gender identity and sexual orientation isn't usually made.In french countries, Travesti means anyone who...
, homosexual behavior moves one from one part of a gender binary to another.
Homosexuality, and its effects on the individual’s place in society is sometimes drastically different in various other cultures. In certain Sambia
Sambia
Sambia or Samland is a peninsula in the Kaliningrad Oblast of Russia, on the southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea. The Curonian Lagoon and the Vistula Lagoon demarcate the peninsula. Prior to 1945 it formed an important part of East Prussia.-Names:Sambia is named after the Sambians, an extinct...
people of New Guinea for example, it is believed that a boy is unable to reach puberty
Puberty
Puberty is the process of physical changes by which a child's body matures into an adult body capable of reproduction, as initiated by hormonal signals from the brain to the gonads; the ovaries in a girl, the testes in a boy...
or maturity without first ingesting the semen
Semen
Semen is an organic fluid, also known as seminal fluid, that may contain spermatozoa. It is secreted by the gonads and other sexual organs of male or hermaphroditic animals and can fertilize female ova...
, considered life-force, of an older male. In addition, these Sambian people believe that a man is unable to replenish his semen on his own, so the ritual continues until a certain time, usually marriage, when he is told of a tree that exudes a milky semen-like sap he may ingest instead.
In Basotho society in contemporary Lesotho
Lesotho
Lesotho , officially the Kingdom of Lesotho, is a landlocked country and enclave, surrounded by the Republic of South Africa. It is just over in size with a population of approximately 2,067,000. Its capital and largest city is Maseru. Lesotho is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. The name...
, girls and women may exchange long kisses, engage in cunnilingus
Cunnilingus
Cunnilingus is an oral sex act performed on a female. It involves the use by a sex partner of the mouth, lips and tongue to stimulate the female's clitoris, vulva, or vagina...
, and even fall in love and form a marriage-like union. In this society however, sex requires penetration, and marriage requires a man as a husband. Therefore, in this context, there is no concept of lesbianism.
Gendered violence
Gendered violence can be similar to a hate crimeHate crime
In crime and law, hate crimes occur when a perpetrator targets a victim because of his or her perceived membership in a certain social group, usually defined by racial group, religion, sexual orientation, disability, class, ethnicity, nationality, age, gender, gender identity, social status or...
in which physical violence is specifically targeting the victim's gender. These violent acts are usually aimed at women or more typically of transgender
Transgender
Transgender is a general term applied to a variety of individuals, behaviors, and groups involving tendencies to vary from culturally conventional gender roles....
victims, but are not solely limited to only these groups of people. This act of violence occurs in the public as well as the private domain and can be easily overlooked. Countless deaths have resulted from these severe crimes as seen in the film Two Spirits. Organizations nationwide such as California Coalition Against Sexual Assault
California Coalition Against Sexual Assault
Founded in 1980, the California Coalition Against Sexual Assault is a membership association of rape crisis centers and sexual assault prevention programs in the State of California, in the United States of America...
help to support and aid the Latino communities in particular to put an end to domestic violence. It is also a matter related to the dominant gender system, which often underlies the motives for gendered violence. The dominant gender system also creates structural violence
Structural violence
Structural violence is a term first used in the 1960s commonly ascribed to Johan Galtung. It refers to a form of violence where some social structure or social institution harms people by preventing them from meeting their basic needs. Institutionalized elitism, ethnocentrism, classism, racism,...
.
See also
- TranssexualismTranssexualismTranssexualism is an individual's identification with a gender inconsistent or not culturally associated with their biological sex. Simply put, it defines a person whose biological birth sex conflicts with their psychological gender...
- TransgenderTransgenderTransgender is a general term applied to a variety of individuals, behaviors, and groups involving tendencies to vary from culturally conventional gender roles....
- Transgenderism (social movement)
- Intersexuality