Glottalization
Encyclopedia
Glottalization is the complete or partial closure of the glottis
during the articulation of another sound. Glottalization of vowel
s and other sonorant
s is most often realized as creaky voice
(partial closure). Glottalization of obstruent
consonants usually involves complete closure of the glottis
; another way to describe this phenomenon is to say that a glottal stop
is made simultaneously with another consonant
. In certain cases, the glottal stop can even wholly replace the voiceless consonant. The term 'glottalized' is also used for ejective and implosive consonants; see glottalic consonant
for examples.
There are two other ways to represent glottalization of sonorants in the IPA
: (a) the same way as ejectives
, with an apostrophe; or (b) with the under-tilde for creaky voice. For example, the Yapese
word for sick with a glottalized m could be transcribed as either [mʼaar] or [m̰aar]. (In some typefaces, the apostrophe will occur above the m.)
, [d]) through stiff voice
([d̬]) and creaky voice
([d̰]) to full glottal closure (glottal reinforcement or glottal replacement, described below). The timing also varies, from a simultaneous single segment [d̰] to an onset or coda such as [ˀd] or [dˀ] to a sequence such as [ʔd] or [dʔ]. Full or partial closure of the glottis also allows glottalic airstream mechanisms to operate, producing ejective
or implosive consonants, which (implosives) may themselves have modal, stiff, or creaky voice. It is not always clear from linguistic descriptions if a language has a series of light ejectives or voiceless consonants with glottal reinforcement, or similarly if it has a series of light implosives or voiced consonants with glottal reinforcement. The airstream parameter is only known to be relevant to obstruents, but the first two are involved with both obstruents and sonorants, including vowels.
and Estuary English
. In these dialects, the glottal stop is an allophone of /p/, /t/, and /k/ word-finally and when preceded by a stressed vowel and followed by an unstressed vowel (this also includes syllabic /l/ /m/ and /n/). 'water' can be pronounced [ˈwɔːʔə] – the glottal stop has omitted the 't' sound. Other examples include "city" [ˈsɪʔɪ], "bottle" [ˈbɒʔəɫ], "Britain" [ˈbɹɪʔən], "seniority" [siːniˈɒɹəʔi].
Glottal replacement also occurs in Indonesian
, where syllable final /k/ is produced as a glottal stop. In Hawaiian
, the glottal stop
is reconstructed
to have come from other Proto-Polynesian
consonants. The following table displays the shift /k/ → /ʔ/ as well as the shift /t/ → /k/.
Glottal replacement is not purely a feature of consonants. Yanesha'
has three vowel qualities (/a/, /e/, and /o/) that have phonemic contrasts between short, long, and "laryngeal" or glottalized forms. While the latter generally consists of creaky
phonation, there is some allophony involved. In pre-final contexts, a variation occurs (especially before voiced consonants) ranging from creaky phonation throughout the vowel to a sequence of a vowel, glottal stop
, and a slightly rearticulated vowel: /maˀˈnʲoʐ/ ('deer') → [maʔa̯ˈnʲoʂ].
, RP
included; /t/ is the most affected but /p/, /k/, and even occasionally /tʃ/ are also affected. In the English dialects exhibiting pre-glottalization, the consonants in question are usually glottalized in the coda position. E.g. "what" [ˈwɒʔt], "fiction" [ˈfɪʔkʃən], "milkman" [ˈmɪlʔkmæn], "opera" [ˈɒʔpɹə]. To a certain extent, there is free variation
in English between glottal replacement and glottal reinforcement.
language group. It almost exclusively concerns the /t/ consonant, and is sometimes orthographically respresented by a double -t. It mostly occurs in monosyllabic verbs, such as "iej loatt" (you let) en "wie weett" (we know). Sometimes it may also occur in contracted words, such as in the phrase: "Wo geet t?" (lit. how goes it?), which is pronounced [ʋɔ 'ɣeːʔtˢ].
Glottis
The glottis is defined as the combination of the vocal folds and the space in between the folds .-Function:...
during the articulation of another sound. Glottalization of vowel
Vowel
In phonetics, a vowel is a sound in spoken language, such as English ah! or oh! , pronounced with an open vocal tract so that there is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis. This contrasts with consonants, such as English sh! , where there is a constriction or closure at some...
s and other sonorant
Sonorant
In phonetics and phonology, a sonorant is a speech sound that is produced without turbulent airflow in the vocal tract; fricatives and plosives are not sonorants. Vowels are sonorants, as are consonants like and . Other consonants, like or , restrict the airflow enough to cause turbulence, and...
s is most often realized as creaky voice
Creaky voice
In linguistics, creaky voice , is a special kind of phonation in which the arytenoid cartilages in the larynx are drawn together; as a result, the vocal folds are compressed rather tightly, becoming relatively slack and compact...
(partial closure). Glottalization of obstruent
Obstruent
An obstruent is a consonant sound formed by obstructing airflow, causing increased air pressure in the vocal tract, such as [k], [d͡ʒ] and [f]. In phonetics, articulation may be divided into two large classes: obstruents and sonorants....
consonants usually involves complete closure of the glottis
Glottis
The glottis is defined as the combination of the vocal folds and the space in between the folds .-Function:...
; another way to describe this phenomenon is to say that a glottal stop
Glottal stop
The glottal stop, or more fully, the voiceless glottal plosive, is a type of consonantal sound used in many spoken languages. In English, the feature is represented, for example, by the hyphen in uh-oh! and by the apostrophe or [[ʻokina]] in Hawaii among those using a preservative pronunciation of...
is made simultaneously with another consonant
Consonant
In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract. Examples are , pronounced with the lips; , pronounced with the front of the tongue; , pronounced with the back of the tongue; , pronounced in the throat; and ,...
. In certain cases, the glottal stop can even wholly replace the voiceless consonant. The term 'glottalized' is also used for ejective and implosive consonants; see glottalic consonant
Glottalic consonant
A glottalic consonant is a consonant produced with some important contribution of the glottis ....
for examples.
There are two other ways to represent glottalization of sonorants in the IPA
International Phonetic Alphabet
The International Phonetic Alphabet "The acronym 'IPA' strictly refers [...] to the 'International Phonetic Association'. But it is now such a common practice to use the acronym also to refer to the alphabet itself that resistance seems pedantic...
: (a) the same way as ejectives
Ejective consonant
In phonetics, ejective consonants are voiceless consonants that are pronounced with simultaneous closure of the glottis. In the phonology of a particular language, ejectives may contrast with aspirated or tenuis consonants...
, with an apostrophe; or (b) with the under-tilde for creaky voice. For example, the Yapese
Yapese language
Yapese is a language spoken by the people on the island of Yap .It belongs to the Austronesian languages, more specifically to the Oceanic languages...
word for sick with a glottalized m could be transcribed as either [mʼaar] or [m̰aar]. (In some typefaces, the apostrophe will occur above the m.)
Types of glottalization
Glottalization varies along three parameters, all of which are continuums. The degree of glottalization varies from none (modal voiceModal voice
Modal voice is the vocal register used most frequently in speech and singing in most languages. It is also the term used in linguistics for the most common phonation of vowels...
, [d]) through stiff voice
Stiff voice
The term stiff voice describes the pronunciation of consonants or vowels with a glottal opening narrower, and the vocal cords stiffer, than what occurs in modal voice. Although there is no specific IPA diacritic for stiff voice, the voicing diacritic may be used in conjunction with the symbol for...
([d̬]) and creaky voice
Creaky voice
In linguistics, creaky voice , is a special kind of phonation in which the arytenoid cartilages in the larynx are drawn together; as a result, the vocal folds are compressed rather tightly, becoming relatively slack and compact...
([d̰]) to full glottal closure (glottal reinforcement or glottal replacement, described below). The timing also varies, from a simultaneous single segment [d̰] to an onset or coda such as [ˀd] or [dˀ] to a sequence such as [ʔd] or [dʔ]. Full or partial closure of the glottis also allows glottalic airstream mechanisms to operate, producing ejective
Ejective consonant
In phonetics, ejective consonants are voiceless consonants that are pronounced with simultaneous closure of the glottis. In the phonology of a particular language, ejectives may contrast with aspirated or tenuis consonants...
or implosive consonants, which (implosives) may themselves have modal, stiff, or creaky voice. It is not always clear from linguistic descriptions if a language has a series of light ejectives or voiceless consonants with glottal reinforcement, or similarly if it has a series of light implosives or voiced consonants with glottal reinforcement. The airstream parameter is only known to be relevant to obstruents, but the first two are involved with both obstruents and sonorants, including vowels.
Glottal replacement
When a phoneme is completely substituted by a glottal stop [ʔ], one speaks of glottaling or glottal replacement. This is, for instance, very common in CockneyCockney
The term Cockney has both geographical and linguistic associations. Geographically and culturally, it often refers to working class Londoners, particularly those in the East End...
and Estuary English
Estuary English
Estuary English is a dialect of English widely spoken in South East England, especially along the River Thames and its estuary. Phonetician John C. Wells defines Estuary English as "Standard English spoken with the accent of the southeast of England"...
. In these dialects, the glottal stop is an allophone of /p/, /t/, and /k/ word-finally and when preceded by a stressed vowel and followed by an unstressed vowel (this also includes syllabic /l/ /m/ and /n/). 'water' can be pronounced [ˈwɔːʔə] – the glottal stop has omitted the 't' sound. Other examples include "city" [ˈsɪʔɪ], "bottle" [ˈbɒʔəɫ], "Britain" [ˈbɹɪʔən], "seniority" [siːniˈɒɹəʔi].
Glottal replacement also occurs in Indonesian
Indonesian language
Indonesian is the official language of Indonesia. Indonesian is a normative form of the Riau Islands dialect of Malay, an Austronesian language which has been used as a lingua franca in the Indonesian archipelago for centuries....
, where syllable final /k/ is produced as a glottal stop. In Hawaiian
Hawaiian language
The Hawaiian language is a Polynesian language that takes its name from Hawaii, the largest island in the tropical North Pacific archipelago where it developed. Hawaiian, along with English, is an official language of the state of Hawaii...
, the glottal stop
Glottal stop
The glottal stop, or more fully, the voiceless glottal plosive, is a type of consonantal sound used in many spoken languages. In English, the feature is represented, for example, by the hyphen in uh-oh! and by the apostrophe or [[ʻokina]] in Hawaii among those using a preservative pronunciation of...
is reconstructed
Comparative method
In linguistics, the comparative method is a technique for studying the development of languages by performing a feature-by-feature comparison of two or more languages with common descent from a shared ancestor, as opposed to the method of internal reconstruction, which analyzes the internal...
to have come from other Proto-Polynesian
Proto-Polynesian language
Proto-Polynesian, , is the hypothetical proto-language from which all the modern Polynesian languages descend. Historical linguists have reconstructed the language using the comparative method, in much the same manner as with Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Afro-Asiatic...
consonants. The following table displays the shift /k/ → /ʔ/ as well as the shift /t/ → /k/.
| Gloss | man | sea | taboo | octopus | canoe |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tongan Tongan language Tongan is an Austronesian language spoken in Tonga. It has around 200,000 speakers and is a national language of Tonga. It is a VSO language.-Related languages:... |
taŋata | tahi | tapu | feke | vaka |
| Samoan Samoan language Samoan Samoan Samoan (Gagana Sāmoa, is the language of the Samoan Islands, comprising the independent country of Samoa and the United States territory of American Samoa. It is an official language—alongside English—in both jurisdictions. Samoan, a Polynesian language, is the first language for most... |
taŋata | tai | tapu | feʔe | vaʔa |
| Māori Maori language Māori or te reo Māori , commonly te reo , is the language of the indigenous population of New Zealand, the Māori. It has the status of an official language in New Zealand... |
taŋata | tai | tapu | ɸeke | waka |
| Rapanui | taŋata | tai | tapu | heke | vaka |
| Rarotongan | taŋata | tai | tapu | ʔeke | vaka |
| Hawaiian Hawaiian language The Hawaiian language is a Polynesian language that takes its name from Hawaii, the largest island in the tropical North Pacific archipelago where it developed. Hawaiian, along with English, is an official language of the state of Hawaii... |
kanaka | kai | kapu | heʔe | waʔa |
Glottal replacement is not purely a feature of consonants. Yanesha'
Yanesha' language
Yanesha , also called Amuesha or Amoesha is a language spoken by the Amuesha people of Peru in central and eastern Pasco Region.Due to the influence and domination of the Inca Empire, Yanesha' has many loanwords from Quechua, including some core vocabulary...
has three vowel qualities (/a/, /e/, and /o/) that have phonemic contrasts between short, long, and "laryngeal" or glottalized forms. While the latter generally consists of creaky
Creaky voice
In linguistics, creaky voice , is a special kind of phonation in which the arytenoid cartilages in the larynx are drawn together; as a result, the vocal folds are compressed rather tightly, becoming relatively slack and compact...
phonation, there is some allophony involved. In pre-final contexts, a variation occurs (especially before voiced consonants) ranging from creaky phonation throughout the vowel to a sequence of a vowel, glottal stop
Glottal stop
The glottal stop, or more fully, the voiceless glottal plosive, is a type of consonantal sound used in many spoken languages. In English, the feature is represented, for example, by the hyphen in uh-oh! and by the apostrophe or [[ʻokina]] in Hawaii among those using a preservative pronunciation of...
, and a slightly rearticulated vowel: /maˀˈnʲoʐ/ ('deer') → [maʔa̯ˈnʲoʂ].
Glottal reinforcement
When a phoneme is accompanied (either sequentially or simultaneously) by a [ʔ], then one speaks of pre-glottalization or glottal reinforcement. This is very common in all varieties of EnglishEnglish language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
, RP
Received Pronunciation
Received Pronunciation , also called the Queen's English, Oxford English or BBC English, is the accent of Standard English in England, with a relationship to regional accents similar to the relationship in other European languages between their standard varieties and their regional forms...
included; /t/ is the most affected but /p/, /k/, and even occasionally /tʃ/ are also affected. In the English dialects exhibiting pre-glottalization, the consonants in question are usually glottalized in the coda position. E.g. "what" [ˈwɒʔt], "fiction" [ˈfɪʔkʃən], "milkman" [ˈmɪlʔkmæn], "opera" [ˈɒʔpɹə]. To a certain extent, there is free variation
Free variation
Free variation in linguistics is the phenomenon of two sounds or forms appearing in the same environment without a change in meaning and without being considered incorrect by native speakers...
in English between glottal replacement and glottal reinforcement.
Other languages
Glottal reinforcement may occasionally be observed in more conservative varieties of Tweants, a dialect of the Dutch Low SaxonDutch Low Saxon
Dutch Low Saxon is a group of Low Saxon, i.e. West Low German dialects spoken in the northeastern Netherlands. In comparison, the remainder of the Netherlands speak a collection of Low Franconian dialects.The class "Dutch Low Saxon" is not unanimous...
language group. It almost exclusively concerns the /t/ consonant, and is sometimes orthographically respresented by a double -t. It mostly occurs in monosyllabic verbs, such as "iej loatt" (you let) en "wie weett" (we know). Sometimes it may also occur in contracted words, such as in the phrase: "Wo geet t?" (lit. how goes it?), which is pronounced [ʋɔ 'ɣeːʔtˢ].
See also
- Glottalic consonantGlottalic consonantA glottalic consonant is a consonant produced with some important contribution of the glottis ....
- Implosive consonantImplosive consonantImplosive consonants are stops with a mixed glottalic ingressive and pulmonic egressive airstream mechanism. That is, the airstream is controlled by moving the glottis downward in addition to expelling air from the lungs. Therefore, unlike the purely glottalic ejective consonants, implosives can...
- Ejective consonantEjective consonantIn phonetics, ejective consonants are voiceless consonants that are pronounced with simultaneous closure of the glottis. In the phonology of a particular language, ejectives may contrast with aspirated or tenuis consonants...
- T-glottalizationT-glottalizationT-glottalization is a process that occurs for many English speakers, that causes the phoneme to be pronounced as the glottal stop in certain positions. This is an instance of the more general phonetic phenomenon called glottalization...
External links
- http://www.kortlandt.nl/publications/art211e.pdf Kortlandt, Frederik. Glottalization, Preaspiration and Gemination in English and Scandinavian. Doc PDF.
- http://www.openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/dspace/bitstream/1887/1926/1/344_103.pdf Kortland, Frederik. How Old is the English Glottal Stop?. Doc PDF.
- http://www-users.york.ac.uk/~pf11/Doch-etal-JLING.pdf Docherty, G. et al. Descriptive Adequacy in Phonology: a variationist perspective. Doc PDF.
- http://www.ling.lancs.ac.uk/staff/kerswill/pkpubs/Kerswill2003DialectLevellDiffusion.pdf Kerswill, P. Dialect Levelling and Geographical Diffusion in British English. Doc PDF.
- http://www.phon.ox.ac.uk/~joanna/sap36_jp.pdf Przedlacka, J. Estuary English and RP: Some Recent Findings. Doc PDF.
- http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/estuary/home.htm Wells, J.C. Site of the UCL (University College of London) Department of Phonetics and Linguistics. Web documents relating to Estuary English.