Gonimbrasia belina
Encyclopedia
Gonimbrasia belina is a species of moth
found in much of Southern Africa
, whose large edible caterpillar
, the mopani or mopane worm, is an important source of protein
for millions of indigenous Southern Africa
ns.
tree, Colophospermum mopane. Other vernacular names for the caterpillars include:
The Latin name is sometimes given as Imbrasia belina, rather than Gonimbrasia belina.
Like most caterpillars, the mopane worm's life cycle starts when it hatches in the summer, after which it proceeds to eat the foliage in its immediate vicinity. As the larva
grows, it moults 4 times in its 5 larval stages, after which the mopane worm is considered most desirable for harvesting. Provided that the larva has not been harvested after its fourth moult, it burrows underground to pupa
te, the stage at which it undergoes complete transformation to become the adult moth. This stage happens over winter, for a duration of 6 to 7 months, whereafter it emerges at the beginning of summer (November or December).
The adult moths live only for three to four days, during which time they seek to mate and lay their eggs.
Often, more than 40% of a mopane worm's eggs will be attacked by various parasites, and the caterpillars themselves are susceptible to infection from a virus that has a high mortality rate.
The worms' main predators are various birds and humans, who rely on the caterpillars for sustenance.
tree, it is not limited to this diet, and can feed on many other trees indigenous to the same regions, including the leaves of the mango
tree. This allows the mopane worm to be scattered over a fairly large area, as it is not restricted to areas with mopane trees. As the larval stage of the mopane worm is fairly short in contrast to other browsing caterpillars, the extensive damage to foliage is easily survived by the tree, in time to be replenished for the next generation of mopane worms.
Like most caterpillars, the mopane worm is a voracious eater, and will continue to eat - almost non-stop - until it reaches the next stage of its life cycle, when it burrows underground to undergo metamorphosis.
tying a piece of bark to particular trees to establish ownership, or moving the young caterpillars to trees nearer home. When the caterpillar has been picked, it is pinched at the tail end to rupture the innards. The picker then squeezes it like a tube of toothpaste or lengthwise like a concertina, and whips it to expel the slimy, green contents of the gut.
. The flesh is yellow, and the gut may still contain fragments of dried leaf, which is not harmful to humans. The taste is somewhat reminiscent of tea leaves.
As the dried mopane worm has very little flavor and is sometimes compared to eating dried wood, mopane worms are frequently canned/packaged in tomato sauce or chili sauce to enhance the flavor.
ran a promotional spot in which an American husband and wife visit a remote African tribe which fed them mopane worms, which the husband described as tasting like "honey barbecued chicken." Later, the headman of the village is a guest of the American couple, who serves him honey barbecued chicken; the headman describes it (in his native language, subtitled in English) as tasting "just like mapani [sic] worms."
In the TV show The No. 1 Ladies' Detective Agency
, one of the characters is going on surveillance, and is brought bush tea and mopane worms as an alternative to coffee and donuts.
, Namibia
, South Africa
(Limpopo Province and Mpumalanga
) and Zimbabwe
. Typically, the caterpillars are not domesticated, and are picked wherever they occur naturally. It is one of the region's most economically important insects. In the 1990s, hundreds of tons were exported from Botswana and South Africa each year. It is estimated that South Africa alone trades 1.6 million kilogrammes of mopane worm annually, and that Botswana's involvement in this industry nets it roughly $8 million annually.
Mopane worms are considered to be a profitable harvest, as a mere 3 kilogramme of feed (mopane leaves) will generally yield 1 kilogramme of mopane worms: in contrast, cattle farming requires 10 kilogrammes of feed to generate 1 kilogramme of beef; thus the worms are a low-cost, low-maintenance, high-protein foodsource.
Traditionally, mopane worms were harvested for subsistence. The seasonal nature of the edible caterpillars meant that this was not a year-round food source. However, traditional mopane worm harvesting is evolving to be more commercially-driven.
Since the 1950s, methods used in commercial farming have been applied to the mopane worm harvests, particularly in South Africa. Collectors may organise teams of hundreds of people to hand-pick the caterpillars from the trees, after which they are bagged en masse, weighed and sent off to be processed. Owners of land where mopane worms are found may charge harvesters large fees to enter. Whilst this relationship profits both the commercial harvester and the farmer, it is often to the detriment of the local community for whom the caterpillars may previously have been an important source of food and seasonal income.
A sure sign of the presence of mopane worms is defoliation of mopane woodland - sometimes around 90 percent of leaves. Fenced-in browsing animals may rely on the mopane, and other trees favoured by the caterpillars, as an important part of their diet. Some farmers therefore view the mopane worm as competition for their livestock, and attempt to eradicate the "pest" with insecticide
s and the like. However, the caterpillar season is short, and the trees sprout the new, tender foliage which browsers prefer, so this problem can be managed in other ways: in particular, by working to mutual benefit with the local caterpillar harvesters.
Moth
A moth is an insect closely related to the butterfly, both being of the order Lepidoptera. Moths form the majority of this order; there are thought to be 150,000 to 250,000 different species of moth , with thousands of species yet to be described...
found in much of Southern Africa
Southern Africa
Southern Africa is the southernmost region of the African continent, variably defined by geography or geopolitics. Within the region are numerous territories, including the Republic of South Africa ; nowadays, the simpler term South Africa is generally reserved for the country in English.-UN...
, whose large edible caterpillar
Caterpillar
Caterpillars are the larval form of members of the order Lepidoptera . They are mostly herbivorous in food habit, although some species are insectivorous. Caterpillars are voracious feeders and many of them are considered to be pests in agriculture...
, the mopani or mopane worm, is an important source of protein
Protein
Proteins are biochemical compounds consisting of one or more polypeptides typically folded into a globular or fibrous form, facilitating a biological function. A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of...
for millions of indigenous Southern Africa
Southern Africa
Southern Africa is the southernmost region of the African continent, variably defined by geography or geopolitics. Within the region are numerous territories, including the Republic of South Africa ; nowadays, the simpler term South Africa is generally reserved for the country in English.-UN...
ns.
Vernacular names
The mopane worm is so called in English because it is usually found on the mopaneMopane
The mopane or mopani tree grows in hot, dry, low-lying areas, in elevation, in the far northern parts of southern Africa, into South Africa, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Botswana, Zambia, Namibia, Angola and Malawi. The tree only occurs in Africa and is the only species in genus Colophospermum...
tree, Colophospermum mopane. Other vernacular names for the caterpillars include:
- Botswana
- KalangaKalangaKalanga may refer to:* BaKalanga people* Kalanga language* Kalanga, Togo...
:mashonja - Setswana: phane
- Kalanga
- South Africa
- Sepedi: mašotša (colloq)
- Tshivenda: mashonzha
- Xitsonga: matamani or masonja""
- Zambia
- muyaya (believed to be mopane worm)
- finkubala
- Zimbabwe
- Ndebele: macimbi
- ShonaShona languageShona is a Bantu language, native to the Shona people of Zimbabwe and southern Zambia; the term is also used to identify peoples who speak one of the Shona language dialects: Zezuru, Karanga, Manyika, Ndau and Korekore...
: madora or mashonja in Karanga
- Namibia
- Oshiwambo: omagungu
- Democratic Republic of Congo
- Kikongo: mingolo
The Latin name is sometimes given as Imbrasia belina, rather than Gonimbrasia belina.
Identification
Moths are large (wingspan 120mm) Wings fawn through shades of green and brown to red, with 2 black and white bands isolating eye spots. Orange eyespot on each hind wing. Larvae are black, peppered with round scales in indistinct alternating whitish green and yellow bands, and armed with short black or reddish spines covered in fine white hairs. Males have feathery antennae. They use them to find a mate.Biology
Larvae eat a wide range of plants including Mopane, Carissa grandiflora, Diospyros, Ficus, Rhus, Scleorcarya caffra, Terminalia and Trema. Out breaks defoliate shrubs, depriving game of browse.Life cycle
Larva
A larva is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle...
grows, it moults 4 times in its 5 larval stages, after which the mopane worm is considered most desirable for harvesting. Provided that the larva has not been harvested after its fourth moult, it burrows underground to pupa
Pupa
A pupa is the life stage of some insects undergoing transformation. The pupal stage is found only in holometabolous insects, those that undergo a complete metamorphosis, going through four life stages; embryo, larva, pupa and imago...
te, the stage at which it undergoes complete transformation to become the adult moth. This stage happens over winter, for a duration of 6 to 7 months, whereafter it emerges at the beginning of summer (November or December).
The adult moths live only for three to four days, during which time they seek to mate and lay their eggs.
Predators
Like many animals lower down on the food chain, the mopane worms and their eggs often fall prey to various predators as well as disease.Often, more than 40% of a mopane worm's eggs will be attacked by various parasites, and the caterpillars themselves are susceptible to infection from a virus that has a high mortality rate.
The worms' main predators are various birds and humans, who rely on the caterpillars for sustenance.
Diet of the mopane worm
Although the mopane worm feeds chiefly on the mopaneMopane
The mopane or mopani tree grows in hot, dry, low-lying areas, in elevation, in the far northern parts of southern Africa, into South Africa, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Botswana, Zambia, Namibia, Angola and Malawi. The tree only occurs in Africa and is the only species in genus Colophospermum...
tree, it is not limited to this diet, and can feed on many other trees indigenous to the same regions, including the leaves of the mango
Mango
The mango is a fleshy stone fruit belonging to the genus Mangifera, consisting of numerous tropical fruiting trees in the flowering plant family Anacardiaceae. The mango is native to India from where it spread all over the world. It is also the most cultivated fruit of the tropical world. While...
tree. This allows the mopane worm to be scattered over a fairly large area, as it is not restricted to areas with mopane trees. As the larval stage of the mopane worm is fairly short in contrast to other browsing caterpillars, the extensive damage to foliage is easily survived by the tree, in time to be replenished for the next generation of mopane worms.
Like most caterpillars, the mopane worm is a voracious eater, and will continue to eat - almost non-stop - until it reaches the next stage of its life cycle, when it burrows underground to undergo metamorphosis.
The mopane worm as food
Mopane worms are hand-picked in the wild, often by women and children. In the bush, the caterpillars are not considered to belong to the landowner (if any), but around a house permission should be sought from the resident. Chavanduka describes women in ZimbabweZimbabwe
Zimbabwe is a landlocked country located in the southern part of the African continent, between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers. It is bordered by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the southwest, Zambia and a tip of Namibia to the northwest and Mozambique to the east. Zimbabwe has three...
tying a piece of bark to particular trees to establish ownership, or moving the young caterpillars to trees nearer home. When the caterpillar has been picked, it is pinched at the tail end to rupture the innards. The picker then squeezes it like a tube of toothpaste or lengthwise like a concertina, and whips it to expel the slimy, green contents of the gut.
Preserving
The traditional method of preserving mopane worms is to dry them in the sun or smoke them, giving additional flavour. The industrial method is to can the caterpillars (usually in brine), and tins of mopane worms can be found in rural supermarkets and markets around southern Africa.Eating
Dried mopane worms can be eaten raw as a crisp snack, although in Botswana people tend not to eat the head. Alternatively, mopane worms can be soaked to rehydrate, before frying until crunchy or cooking with onion, tomatoes and spices and serving with sadzaSadza
Sadza in Shona, Isitshwala in isiNdebele, pap in South Africa or nsima in the Chichewa language of Malawi, is a cooked corn meal that is the staple food in Zimbabwe and other parts of southern and eastern Africa. This food is cooked widely in other countries of the region.Sadza in appearance is a...
. The flesh is yellow, and the gut may still contain fragments of dried leaf, which is not harmful to humans. The taste is somewhat reminiscent of tea leaves.
As the dried mopane worm has very little flavor and is sometimes compared to eating dried wood, mopane worms are frequently canned/packaged in tomato sauce or chili sauce to enhance the flavor.
In popular culture
Food NetworkFood Network
Food Network is a television specialty channel that airs both one-time and recurring programs about food and cooking. Scripps Networks Interactive owns 70 percent of the network, with Tribune Company controlling the remaining 30 percent....
ran a promotional spot in which an American husband and wife visit a remote African tribe which fed them mopane worms, which the husband described as tasting like "honey barbecued chicken." Later, the headman of the village is a guest of the American couple, who serves him honey barbecued chicken; the headman describes it (in his native language, subtitled in English) as tasting "just like mapani [sic] worms."
In the TV show The No. 1 Ladies' Detective Agency
The No. 1 Ladies' Detective Agency (TV series)
The No. 1 Ladies' Detective Agency is a television comedy-drama series, produced by the BBC in conjunction with HBO, and based on the novels of the same name by Alexander McCall Smith. The novels focus on the story of a detective agency opened by Mma Ramotswe and her courtship with the mechanic Mr....
, one of the characters is going on surveillance, and is brought bush tea and mopane worms as an alternative to coffee and donuts.
Farming and economics
The harvesting and sale of mopane worms is a multi-million rand industry in southern Africa. The principal producers are BotswanaBotswana
Botswana, officially the Republic of Botswana , is a landlocked country located in Southern Africa. The citizens are referred to as "Batswana" . Formerly the British protectorate of Bechuanaland, Botswana adopted its new name after becoming independent within the Commonwealth on 30 September 1966...
, Namibia
Namibia
Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia , is a country in southern Africa whose western border is the Atlantic Ocean. It shares land borders with Angola and Zambia to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south and east. It gained independence from South Africa on 21 March...
, South Africa
South Africa
The Republic of South Africa is a country in southern Africa. Located at the southern tip of Africa, it is divided into nine provinces, with of coastline on the Atlantic and Indian oceans...
(Limpopo Province and Mpumalanga
Mpumalanga
Mpumalanga , is a province of South Africa. The name means east or literally "the place where the sun rises" in Swazi, Xhosa, Ndebele and Zulu. Mpumalanga lies in eastern South Africa, north of KwaZulu-Natal and bordering Swaziland and Mozambique. It constitutes 6.5% of South Africa's land area...
) and Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe is a landlocked country located in the southern part of the African continent, between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers. It is bordered by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the southwest, Zambia and a tip of Namibia to the northwest and Mozambique to the east. Zimbabwe has three...
. Typically, the caterpillars are not domesticated, and are picked wherever they occur naturally. It is one of the region's most economically important insects. In the 1990s, hundreds of tons were exported from Botswana and South Africa each year. It is estimated that South Africa alone trades 1.6 million kilogrammes of mopane worm annually, and that Botswana's involvement in this industry nets it roughly $8 million annually.
Mopane worms are considered to be a profitable harvest, as a mere 3 kilogramme of feed (mopane leaves) will generally yield 1 kilogramme of mopane worms: in contrast, cattle farming requires 10 kilogrammes of feed to generate 1 kilogramme of beef; thus the worms are a low-cost, low-maintenance, high-protein foodsource.
Harvesting
Since the 1950s, methods used in commercial farming have been applied to the mopane worm harvests, particularly in South Africa. Collectors may organise teams of hundreds of people to hand-pick the caterpillars from the trees, after which they are bagged en masse, weighed and sent off to be processed. Owners of land where mopane worms are found may charge harvesters large fees to enter. Whilst this relationship profits both the commercial harvester and the farmer, it is often to the detriment of the local community for whom the caterpillars may previously have been an important source of food and seasonal income.
Sustainability
As mopane worms represent an important sector in the local rural economy, it attracts large numbers of people who seek to cash in on the profits of selling the insects as food. This leads to overharvesting, and fewer mopane worms the following year. In some areas, farmers and communities have taken steps to reach a balance, so that each year may yield maximum returns without compromising the following year's harvest.Fears of competition
Insecticide
An insecticide is a pesticide used against insects. They include ovicides and larvicides used against the eggs and larvae of insects respectively. Insecticides are used in agriculture, medicine, industry and the household. The use of insecticides is believed to be one of the major factors behind...
s and the like. However, the caterpillar season is short, and the trees sprout the new, tender foliage which browsers prefer, so this problem can be managed in other ways: in particular, by working to mutual benefit with the local caterpillar harvesters.
Recolonisation
Some areas once rich in mopane worms are now barren due to over-harvesting and lack of a proper sustainable approach to commercial mopane worm farming. Suggestions of how to reintroduce the worms to these areas include recolonisation. As the adult moth lives only three to four days, during which it must mate and lay eggs, there is only a small window of opportunity to relocate them. If this stage were successfully completed, collaboration with local farmers and communities would be required to ensure the caterpillars were not harvested for a set number of years. This would allow it to adequately repopulate the area, to create a sustainable harvest in the future.Domestication
Those in the business have considered domesticating the mopane worms in a manner similar to silkworms. This would allow the industry to be less susceptible to the pitfalls associated with it, such as climatic change, drought and other factors that could compromise a harvest. For a domesticated industry to succeed on a small scale and be accessible to the poorest of the poor, the cost of production would have to be comparable with the cost of wild worms or dried worms at the market.Further reading
- Food Insects Site includes The Food Insects Newsletter
- DeFoliart, Gene. The Human Use of Insects as a Food Resource: A Bibliographic Account in Progress.
External links
- Homepage of Arne Larsen Photographs of a mopane worm outbreak