Gordon Riots
Encyclopedia
The Gordon Riots of 1780 were an anti-Catholic protest against the Papists Act 1778
.
The Popery Act 1698
had imposed a number of penalties and disabilities on Roman Catholics in England; the 1778 act eliminated some of these. An initial peaceful protest led on to widespread rioting and looting and was the most destructive of the 18th century in London. Painted on the wall of Newgate prison was the proclamation that the inmates had been freed by the authority of "His Majesty, King Mob". The term "King Mob" ever after denoted an unruly and fearsome proletariat.
The Riots came at the height of the American War of Independence with Britain fighting American rebels
, France
, Spain
and the Dutch Republic
. They led to inaccurate fears that they had been a deliberate attempt by France to destabilise Britain before an imminent French invasion.
The stated intention of the Papists Act of 1778 was, as its preamble notes, to mitigate some of the official discrimination against Roman Catholics in the Kingdom of Great Britain
at the time, and particularly, it absolved Catholics from taking the religious oath when joining the British Armed Forces
. There were strong expedient reasons for this change. British military forces at the time were stretched very thinly in what had become a global American War of Independence, with conflicts ongoing with France
, Spain
, and the new United States
. The recruitment of Catholics would be a significant help to address this shortfall of manpower.
The 1689 anti-Catholic laws had largely been ignored for many years and were rarely enforced. Because of this, many leading Catholics were opposed to the repeal of the Act, fearing it would stir up anti-Catholic sentiment for little practical return. It was also pointed out that large numbers of Catholics, recruited in Ireland
and the Scottish Highlands
, were already serving in the military. In spite of this, the government decided to press ahead with the Bill and had it introduced in Parliament by Sir George Savile.
became the President of the Protestant Association in 1780 to force the repeal of this legislation. An articulate, though eccentric, propagandist, Gordon inflamed the mob with fears of papism and a return to absolute monarchical rule
. He implied that Catholics in the military would, given a chance, join forces with their co-religionists on the Continent and attack Britain. He enjoyed popularity in Scotland
where he took part in a successful campaign to prevent the same legislation from being introduced into Scottish Law, although the Act continued in force in England and Wales
and in Ireland. The success in obstructing the law in Scotland led Gordon to believe he could enjoy similar success in the rest of Britain. Early in 1780 Gordon had several audience
s with King George III
but was unable to convince him of what he saw as the dangers of the Act. George III initially humoured Gordon, but grew increasingly irritated with him and eventually refused any future audiences.
The political climate deteriorated rapidly. On 29 May 1780, Gordon called a meeting of the Protestant Association, and his followers subsequently marched on the House of Commons
to deliver a petition demanding the repeal of the Act.
Shortly after the riots had broken out, the Duke of Richmond
suggested that they were directly attributable to the passing of the Quebec Act six years before, a concept that was ridiculed by many of his colleagues. Another possible cause that has been suggested was Britain's weakened international position, which had arisen from the country's isolation in Europe and the disappointing news coming home from the ongoing war. Some rioters were against the continuation of the war, and many were avowedly pro-American independence, while others were angry that Britain's war effort was being mishandled by Lord North. In many cases a mix of issues blended together and drove people to take part in the rioting.
erupted. Members of the House of Lords
were attacked as they arrived, and a number of carriages were vandalised and destroyed.
Despite being aware of the possibility of trouble, the authorities had failed to take steps to prevent violence breaking out. The Prime Minister, Lord North, had forgotten to issue an order mobilising the small number of Constables in the area. Those that were present in the House of Commons were not strong enough to take on the angry mob. Eventually a detachment of soldiers were summoned, and they dispersed the crowd without violence. Inside the House of Commons, the petition was overwhelmingly dismissed by a vote of 192 to 6.
in Duke Street
. Bow Street Runners
and soldiers were called out and made thirteen arrests, although most of the ringleaders had managed to escape. The same night the Bavaria
n Embassy was attacked, and crowds caused random violence in streets known to house rich Catholics.
The area of Moorfields
, one of the poorest parts of the city, was the home of many Irish
immigrant workers and had a large area of open ground where crowds could assemble. Despite the appeal of a prominent Irish merchant, James Malo, to the Lord Mayor
, Brackley Kennett
, no additional protection was offered to the area. During 3 June a crowd had gathered in Moorfields, and by nightfall it began to go on the rampage. Malo's house was amongst the many to be sacked and burned.
Newgate Prison
was attacked and largely destroyed, as was The Clink
. This allowed large numbers of prisoners to escape, many of whom were never recaptured. Severe destruction was inflicted on Catholic churches and homes and chapels on the grounds of several embassies, as well as on the Bank of England
, Fleet Prison
, and the house of the Lord Chief Justice, William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield
.
The army was called out on 7 June and given orders to fire upon groups of four or more who refused to disperse. About 285 people were shot dead, with another 200 wounded. Around 450 of the rioters were arrested. Of those arrested, about twenty or thirty were later tried and executed. Gordon was arrested and charged with high treason
, but was found not guilty. Brackley Kennett, the Lord Mayor, was convicted of criminal negligence
for not reading out the Riot Act
and given a £1,000 fine. The military units which dealt with the rioters included the Horse Guards
, Foot Guards
, the Honourable Artillery Company
, line infantry including the Queen's Royal Regiment (West Surrey)
, and militia brought in from neighbouring counties.
as an inherently unstable form of government. This came at a time when Britain was searching for allies, particularly Catholic Austria, in the American War of Independence to challenge the strong coalition the French had built. After hearing of the riots, the Spanish government broke off peace negotiations with Britain, believing that the disorder would lead to a widespread collapse of Britain and wishing to take advantage of it.
The riots highlighted the problems Britain faced by not deploying a professional police force, a notion which was opposed as it was considered foreign and absolutist
. The Earl of Shelburne
shocked many the day after the riots broke out by proposing in parliament that Britain should consider forming a force modeled on the French police.
The riots destroyed the popularity of radical politician John Wilkes
, who led troops against the rioters. Many of his followers saw this as a betrayal; some of them may have been among the rioters.
' 1841 novel Barnaby Rudge
depicts the Gordon Riots and features Lord George in a prominent role.
In Bernard Cornwell
's series of novels Sharpe
, the protagonist Richard Sharpe's mother was killed during the riots when he was three.
Papists Act 1778
The Papists Act 1778 is an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain and was the first Act for Catholic Relief. Later in 1778 It was also enacted by the Irish parliament....
.
The Popery Act 1698
Popery Act 1698
The Popery Act 1698 was an Act of Parliament of the Parliament of England passed in 1700. The long title of the Act is "An Act for the further preventing the Growth of Popery."...
had imposed a number of penalties and disabilities on Roman Catholics in England; the 1778 act eliminated some of these. An initial peaceful protest led on to widespread rioting and looting and was the most destructive of the 18th century in London. Painted on the wall of Newgate prison was the proclamation that the inmates had been freed by the authority of "His Majesty, King Mob". The term "King Mob" ever after denoted an unruly and fearsome proletariat.
The Riots came at the height of the American War of Independence with Britain fighting American rebels
Patriot (American Revolution)
Patriots is a name often used to describe the colonists of the British Thirteen United Colonies who rebelled against British control during the American Revolution. It was their leading figures who, in July 1776, declared the United States of America an independent nation...
, France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
and the Dutch Republic
Dutch Republic
The Dutch Republic — officially known as the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands , the Republic of the United Netherlands, or the Republic of the Seven United Provinces — was a republic in Europe existing from 1581 to 1795, preceding the Batavian Republic and ultimately...
. They led to inaccurate fears that they had been a deliberate attempt by France to destabilise Britain before an imminent French invasion.
Background
Kingdom of Great Britain
The former Kingdom of Great Britain, sometimes described as the 'United Kingdom of Great Britain', That the Two Kingdoms of Scotland and England, shall upon the 1st May next ensuing the date hereof, and forever after, be United into One Kingdom by the Name of GREAT BRITAIN. was a sovereign...
at the time, and particularly, it absolved Catholics from taking the religious oath when joining the British Armed Forces
British Armed Forces
The British Armed Forces are the armed forces of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.Also known as Her Majesty's Armed Forces and sometimes legally the Armed Forces of the Crown, the British Armed Forces encompasses three professional uniformed services, the Royal Navy, the...
. There were strong expedient reasons for this change. British military forces at the time were stretched very thinly in what had become a global American War of Independence, with conflicts ongoing with France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
, and the new United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
. The recruitment of Catholics would be a significant help to address this shortfall of manpower.
The 1689 anti-Catholic laws had largely been ignored for many years and were rarely enforced. Because of this, many leading Catholics were opposed to the repeal of the Act, fearing it would stir up anti-Catholic sentiment for little practical return. It was also pointed out that large numbers of Catholics, recruited in Ireland
Ireland
Ireland is an island to the northwest of continental Europe. It is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island on Earth...
and the Scottish Highlands
Scottish Highlands
The Highlands is an historic region of Scotland. The area is sometimes referred to as the "Scottish Highlands". It was culturally distinguishable from the Lowlands from the later Middle Ages into the modern period, when Lowland Scots replaced Scottish Gaelic throughout most of the Lowlands...
, were already serving in the military. In spite of this, the government decided to press ahead with the Bill and had it introduced in Parliament by Sir George Savile.
Protestant Association
Lord George GordonLord George Gordon
Lord George Gordon was a British politician best known for lending his name to the Gordon Riots of 1780....
became the President of the Protestant Association in 1780 to force the repeal of this legislation. An articulate, though eccentric, propagandist, Gordon inflamed the mob with fears of papism and a return to absolute monarchical rule
Absolute monarchy
Absolute monarchy is a monarchical form of government in which the monarch exercises ultimate governing authority as head of state and head of government, his or her power not being limited by a constitution or by the law. An absolute monarch thus wields unrestricted political power over the...
. He implied that Catholics in the military would, given a chance, join forces with their co-religionists on the Continent and attack Britain. He enjoyed popularity in Scotland
Scotland
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the...
where he took part in a successful campaign to prevent the same legislation from being introduced into Scottish Law, although the Act continued in force in England and Wales
England and Wales
England and Wales is a jurisdiction within the United Kingdom. It consists of England and Wales, two of the four countries of the United Kingdom...
and in Ireland. The success in obstructing the law in Scotland led Gordon to believe he could enjoy similar success in the rest of Britain. Early in 1780 Gordon had several audience
Audience
An audience is a group of people who participate in a show or encounter a work of art, literature , theatre, music or academics in any medium...
s with King George III
George III of the United Kingdom
George III was King of Great Britain and King of Ireland from 25 October 1760 until the union of these two countries on 1 January 1801, after which he was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland until his death...
but was unable to convince him of what he saw as the dangers of the Act. George III initially humoured Gordon, but grew increasingly irritated with him and eventually refused any future audiences.
The political climate deteriorated rapidly. On 29 May 1780, Gordon called a meeting of the Protestant Association, and his followers subsequently marched on the House of Commons
House of Commons of Great Britain
The House of Commons of Great Britain was the lower house of the Parliament of Great Britain between 1707 and 1801. In 1707, as a result of the Acts of Union of that year, it replaced the House of Commons of England and the third estate of the Parliament of Scotland, as one of the most significant...
to deliver a petition demanding the repeal of the Act.
Other causes
After the first march to parliament, further riots occurred involving groups whose grievances were nationalistic, economic and political rather than religious. Aside from the issue of Catholic emancipation, it has also been suggested that the driving force of the riots was the poor economic situation Britain found itself in: the loss of trade during the war had led to falling wages, rising prices and periodic unemployment. Because voting in parliamentary elections was restricted by a property threshold, most Londoners were unable to vote and many hoped for reforms to make parliament more representative of the people.Shortly after the riots had broken out, the Duke of Richmond
Charles Lennox, 3rd Duke of Richmond
Field Marshal Charles Lennox, 3rd Duke of Richmond, 3rd Duke of Lennox, 3rd Duke of Aubigny, KG, PC, FRS , styled Earl of March until 1750, was a British politician and office holder noteworthy for his advanced views on the issue of parliamentary reform...
suggested that they were directly attributable to the passing of the Quebec Act six years before, a concept that was ridiculed by many of his colleagues. Another possible cause that has been suggested was Britain's weakened international position, which had arisen from the country's isolation in Europe and the disappointing news coming home from the ongoing war. Some rioters were against the continuation of the war, and many were avowedly pro-American independence, while others were angry that Britain's war effort was being mishandled by Lord North. In many cases a mix of issues blended together and drove people to take part in the rioting.
March on Parliament
On 2 June 1780 a huge crowd, estimated at 40,000 to 60,000 strong, assembled and marched on the Houses of Parliament. Many carried flags and banners proclaiming "No Popery", and most wore blue cockades which had become the symbol of their movement. As they marched, their numbers swelled. They attempted to force their way into the House of Commons, but without success. Gordon, petition in hand, and wearing in his hat the blue cockade of the Protestant Association, entered the Commons and presented the petition. Outside, the situation quickly got out of hand and a riotRiot
A riot is a form of civil disorder characterized often by what is thought of as disorganized groups lashing out in a sudden and intense rash of violence against authority, property or people. While individuals may attempt to lead or control a riot, riots are thought to be typically chaotic and...
erupted. Members of the House of Lords
House of Lords
The House of Lords is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the House of Commons, it meets in the Palace of Westminster....
were attacked as they arrived, and a number of carriages were vandalised and destroyed.
Despite being aware of the possibility of trouble, the authorities had failed to take steps to prevent violence breaking out. The Prime Minister, Lord North, had forgotten to issue an order mobilising the small number of Constables in the area. Those that were present in the House of Commons were not strong enough to take on the angry mob. Eventually a detachment of soldiers were summoned, and they dispersed the crowd without violence. Inside the House of Commons, the petition was overwhelmingly dismissed by a vote of 192 to 6.
Embassies attacked
Once the mob around parliament had dispersed, it seemed to the government that the worst of the disorder was over. However, the same night a crowd gathered and attacked the Roman Catholic Chapel of the Sardinian Embassy ChapelSardinian Embassy Chapel
The Sardinian Embassy Chapel was an important Roman Catholic church attached to the Embassy of the Kingdom of Sardinia in the Lincoln's Inn area of London.-History:...
in Duke Street
Duke Street
-Companies:* Duke Street, a European private equity firm* Duke Street Records, a Canadian record label-United Kingdom:* Duke Street, Barrow-in-Furness* Duke Street,Devonport, named after HMS Duke launched in 1777 from Devonport Dockyard....
. Bow Street Runners
Bow Street Runners
The Bow Street Runners have been called London's first professional police force. The force was founded in 1749 by the author Henry Fielding and originally numbered just six. Bow Street runners was the public's nickname for these officers, "although the officers never referred to themselves as...
and soldiers were called out and made thirteen arrests, although most of the ringleaders had managed to escape. The same night the Bavaria
Bavaria
Bavaria, formally the Free State of Bavaria is a state of Germany, located in the southeast of Germany. With an area of , it is the largest state by area, forming almost 20% of the total land area of Germany...
n Embassy was attacked, and crowds caused random violence in streets known to house rich Catholics.
Moorfields
Moorfields
In London, the Moorfields were one of the last pieces of open land in the City of London, near the Moorgate. The fields were divided into three areas, the Moorfields proper, just north of Bethlem Hospital, and inside the City boundaries, and Middle and Upper Moorfields to the north.After the Great...
, one of the poorest parts of the city, was the home of many Irish
Irish people
The Irish people are an ethnic group who originate in Ireland, an island in northwestern Europe. Ireland has been populated for around 9,000 years , with the Irish people's earliest ancestors recorded having legends of being descended from groups such as the Nemedians, Fomorians, Fir Bolg, Tuatha...
immigrant workers and had a large area of open ground where crowds could assemble. Despite the appeal of a prominent Irish merchant, James Malo, to the Lord Mayor
Lord Mayor of London
The Right Honourable Lord Mayor of London is the legal title for the Mayor of the City of London Corporation. The Lord Mayor of London is to be distinguished from the Mayor of London; the former is an officer only of the City of London, while the Mayor of London is the Mayor of Greater London and...
, Brackley Kennett
Brackley Kennett
Brackley Kennett was a British merchant who served as Lord Mayor of London from 1779-1780. During his time in office the Gordon Riots broke out and his response to the rioting proved controversial...
, no additional protection was offered to the area. During 3 June a crowd had gathered in Moorfields, and by nightfall it began to go on the rampage. Malo's house was amongst the many to be sacked and burned.
Newgate Prison
Newgate Prison
Newgate Prison was a prison in London, at the corner of Newgate Street and Old Bailey just inside the City of London. It was originally located at the site of a gate in the Roman London Wall. The gate/prison was rebuilt in the 12th century, and demolished in 1777...
was attacked and largely destroyed, as was The Clink
The Clink
The Clink was a notorious prison in Southwark, England which functioned from the 12th century until 1780 either deriving its name from, or bestowing it on, the local manor, the Clink Liberty . The manor and prison were owned by the Bishop of Winchester and situated next to his residence at...
. This allowed large numbers of prisoners to escape, many of whom were never recaptured. Severe destruction was inflicted on Catholic churches and homes and chapels on the grounds of several embassies, as well as on the Bank of England
Bank of England
The Bank of England is the central bank of the United Kingdom and the model on which most modern central banks have been based. Established in 1694, it is the second oldest central bank in the world...
, Fleet Prison
Fleet Prison
Fleet Prison was a notorious London prison by the side of the Fleet River in London. The prison was built in 1197 and was in use until 1844. It was demolished in 1846.- History :...
, and the house of the Lord Chief Justice, William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield
William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield
William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield, SL, PC was a British barrister, politician and judge noted for his reform of English law. Born to Scottish nobility, he was educated in Perth, Scotland before moving to London at the age of 13 to take up a place at Westminster School...
.
Army response
High treason
High treason is criminal disloyalty to one's government. Participating in a war against one's native country, attempting to overthrow its government, spying on its military, its diplomats, or its secret services for a hostile and foreign power, or attempting to kill its head of state are perhaps...
, but was found not guilty. Brackley Kennett, the Lord Mayor, was convicted of criminal negligence
Criminal negligence
In the criminal law, criminal negligence is one of the three general classes of mens rea element required to constitute a conventional as opposed to strict liability offense. It is defined as an act that is:-Concept:...
for not reading out the Riot Act
Riot Act
The Riot Act was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain that authorised local authorities to declare any group of twelve or more people to be unlawfully assembled, and thus have to disperse or face punitive action...
and given a £1,000 fine. The military units which dealt with the rioters included the Horse Guards
Horse Guards
Horse Guards or horse guards can refer to:* A Household Cavalry regiment:** Troops of the Horse Guards Regiment of the British Army from 1658-1788** The Royal Horse Guards, which is now part of the Blues and Royals...
, Foot Guards
Foot Guards
-British Army:The Foot Guards are the Regular Infantry regiments of the Household Division of the British Army. There have been six regiments of foot guards, five of which still exist. The Royal Guards Reserve Regiment was a reserve formation of the Household Brigade in existence from 1900-1901...
, the Honourable Artillery Company
Honourable Artillery Company
The Honourable Artillery Company was incorporated by Royal Charter in 1537 by King Henry VIII. Today it is a Registered Charity whose purpose is to attend to the “better defence of the realm"...
, line infantry including the Queen's Royal Regiment (West Surrey)
Queen's Royal Regiment (West Surrey)
The Queen's Royal Regiment was a regiment of the English and later British Army from 1661 to 1959. It was the senior English line infantry regiment of the British Army, behind only the Royal Scots in the British Army line infantry order of precedence...
, and militia brought in from neighbouring counties.
Aftermath
The Riots damaged the reputation of Britain across Europe, where many saw British constitutional monarchyConstitutional monarchy
Constitutional monarchy is a form of government in which a monarch acts as head of state within the parameters of a constitution, whether it be a written, uncodified or blended constitution...
as an inherently unstable form of government. This came at a time when Britain was searching for allies, particularly Catholic Austria, in the American War of Independence to challenge the strong coalition the French had built. After hearing of the riots, the Spanish government broke off peace negotiations with Britain, believing that the disorder would lead to a widespread collapse of Britain and wishing to take advantage of it.
The riots highlighted the problems Britain faced by not deploying a professional police force, a notion which was opposed as it was considered foreign and absolutist
Absolutism (European history)
Absolutism or The Age of Absolutism is a historiographical term used to describe a form of monarchical power that is unrestrained by all other institutions, such as churches, legislatures, or social elites...
. The Earl of Shelburne
William Petty, 2nd Earl of Shelburne
William Petty-FitzMaurice, 1st Marquess of Lansdowne, KG, PC , known as The Earl of Shelburne between 1761 and 1784, by which title he is generally known to history, was an Irish-born British Whig statesman who was the first Home Secretary in 1782 and then Prime Minister 1782–1783 during the final...
shocked many the day after the riots broke out by proposing in parliament that Britain should consider forming a force modeled on the French police.
The riots destroyed the popularity of radical politician John Wilkes
John Wilkes
John Wilkes was an English radical, journalist and politician.He was first elected Member of Parliament in 1757. In the Middlesex election dispute, he fought for the right of voters—rather than the House of Commons—to determine their representatives...
, who led troops against the rioters. Many of his followers saw this as a betrayal; some of them may have been among the rioters.
Cultural references
Charles DickensCharles Dickens
Charles John Huffam Dickens was an English novelist, generally considered the greatest of the Victorian period. Dickens enjoyed a wider popularity and fame than had any previous author during his lifetime, and he remains popular, having been responsible for some of English literature's most iconic...
' 1841 novel Barnaby Rudge
Barnaby Rudge
Barnaby Rudge: A Tale of the Riots of Eighty is a historical novel by British novelist Charles Dickens. Barnaby Rudge was one of two novels that Dickens published in his short-lived weekly serial Master Humphrey's Clock...
depicts the Gordon Riots and features Lord George in a prominent role.
In Bernard Cornwell
Bernard Cornwell
Bernard Cornwell OBE is an English author of historical novels. He is best known for his novels about Napoleonic Wars rifleman Richard Sharpe which were adapted into a series of Sharpe television films.-Biography:...
's series of novels Sharpe
Sharpe
Sharpe may refer to:*Sharpe , people with the surname Sharpe*Sharpe James, American politician, New Jersey*Richard Sharpe , the title character of the Sharpe series by Bernard Cornwell...
, the protagonist Richard Sharpe's mother was killed during the riots when he was three.
See also
- Religion in the United KingdomReligion in the United KingdomReligion in the United Kingdom and the states that pre-dated the UK, was dominated by forms of Christianity for over 1,400 years. Although a majority of citizens still identify with Christianity in many surveys, regular church attendance has fallen dramatically since the middle of the 20th century,...
- Roman Catholicism in England and Wales
- William BlakeWilliam BlakeWilliam Blake was an English poet, painter, and printmaker. Largely unrecognised during his lifetime, Blake is now considered a seminal figure in the history of both the poetry and visual arts of the Romantic Age...
Further reading
- Babington, Anthony. Military intervention in Britain: from the Gordon riots to the Gibralter Incident. Routledge, 1990.
- George Rudé, "The Gordon Riots: A Study of the Rioters and their Victims", in Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th series, no. 6 (1956), 93-114.
- Nicholas Rogers, Crowds, Culture and Politics in Georgian Britain (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998), ch. 5, 'The Gordon Riots', pp. 152–175.
- Article 'Gordon Riots' by John Hungerford Pollen from 1909, transcribed by Joseph P. Thomas in: The Catholic Encyclopedia / ed. by Charles George Herbermann. - New York: Robert Appleton Co., 1907–14
- Professor Uwe Boeker: "The Gordon Riots" - Essay in English Language (Dresden University of Technology - TU Dresden, Institute for English and American Studies)
- Charles Dickens's Barnaby RudgeBarnaby RudgeBarnaby Rudge: A Tale of the Riots of Eighty is a historical novel by British novelist Charles Dickens. Barnaby Rudge was one of two novels that Dickens published in his short-lived weekly serial Master Humphrey's Clock...
describes the riots in detail. - Nicholson, John. The Great Liberty Riot of 1780 (Published by Bozo ISBN 0 904063 16 X 1985)
- Simms, Brendan. Three Victories and a Defeat: The Rise and Fall of the First British Empire. Penguin Books, 2008.
External links
- Contemporary illustrations: burning of the Newgate Prison and proclamation of George III. of June 5, 1780 (Corporation of London)
- Barnaby Rudge A Tale of the Riots of 'Eighty, Charles Dickens, from Project GutenbergProject GutenbergProject Gutenberg is a volunteer effort to digitize and archive cultural works, to "encourage the creation and distribution of eBooks". Founded in 1971 by Michael S. Hart, it is the oldest digital library. Most of the items in its collection are the full texts of public domain books...