Gospel of the Hebrews
Encyclopedia
The Gospel of the Hebrews , commonly shortened from the Gospel according to the Hebrews or simply called the Hebrew Gospel, is a hypothesised lost gospel preserved in fragments within the writings of the Church Fathers
.
This non-canonical
gospel
gave an account of the life
and ministry
of Jesus of Nazareth detailing his story from the events of his Baptism
to his Resurrection
.
A major source regarding the Gospel is the testimony of Jerome
who received a copy from a Nazarene
group while he was at Chalcis
between 373 and 376. Jerome records that it was regarded by many of the Nazarenes and Ebionites as the original version of Matthew: "In evangelio quo utuntur Nazaraeni et Ebionitae, quod nuper in Graecum de Hebraeo sermone transtulimus, et quod vocatur a plerisque Matthaei authenticum."
(1937) provides a list of the major German scholars who up to that date divide the Jewish-Christian Gospels
into different traditions, though Waitz himself argues for only two Gospels. There is now a tendency to reduce the traditional division of the Gospel of the Hebrews, Gospel of the Nazarenes and Gospel of the Ebionites
to two Gospels, though Klauck (2003) notes that against this hypothesis, the material includes "three extra-canonical narratives of the baptism of Jesus which vary to such an extent that they cannot come from one or even two gospels alone."
The standard critical edition of the Gospel of the Hebrews is by Philipp Vielhauer, translated by George Ogg, in Hennecke and Schneemelcher's New Testament Apocrypha (1962), also reproduced in Cameron (1982) and Lapham (2003).
, Irenaeus, Origen
, Eusebius, Epiphanius, and Jerome, that Matthew had written a gospel in the Hebrew language. Irenaeus, Epiphanius, and Jerome identify the Gospel of the Hebrews with this Hebrew gospel of Matthew.
Jerome
(c.347–420) relates that the Nazarenes and Ebionites believed that the Gospel of the Hebrews was the original Gospel of Matthew (Commentary on Matthew 2 . 12) Epiphanius of Salamis
in the Panarion wrote that, "They [Jewish Christians] too accept Matthew's gospel and like the followers of Cerinthus and Merinthus, they use it alone. They call it the Gospel of the Hebrews, for in truth, Matthew alone of the New Covenant writers expounded and declared the gospel in Hebrew using Hebrew script." (Panarion, 30.3.7)
Papias, Bishop of Hierapolis in Asia Minor
during the first half of the 2nd century, writes that Matthew composed the logia in the Hebrew tongue and each one interpreted them as he was able. He also notes that the story of the Sinful Woman was originally from the Gospel of the Hebrews. Apart from Papias' comment, we do not hear about the author of the Gospel until Irenaeus
around 185 who remarks that Matthew issued a written Gospel of the Hebrews (Against Heresies 3.1.1) Pantaenus, Origen and other Church Fathers
also believed Matthew wrote the Gospel of the Hebrews (Church History 5.10.3, 6.25.4) None of these Church Fathers asserted that Matthew wrote his Gospel in Greek.
Traditionally within orthodox Christianity, the Gospel of Matthew was believed to have been composed by Matthew with some believing it to be the first gospel written. This view is not widely held within contemporary Biblical studies. Most scholars believe that the author of the Gospel of Matthew made use of the Gospel of Mark and another source known as Q
. This solution to the origin is known as the Two-source hypothesis
. For this and other reasons, the Gospel of Matthew was composed in Greek and not Hebrew as suggested by Papias.
Irenaeus believed Matthew issued a written Gospel of the Hebrews in their own language while Peter and Paul were preaching at Rome and laying the foundations of the Church (Against Heresies 3:1). According to Eusebius Hegesippus
said Matthew's Gospel was written in Syriac (Ecclesiastical History 3:22-24) a view Eusebius shared (Theophania 4:12). This is repeated in the Stichometry of Nicephorus
(c.810). Epiphanius
wrote that the Ebionites used only the Gospel of the Hebrews, which was expounded and declared Hebrew using Hebrew script.
Jerome makes frequent reference to the Nazarene Gospel of the Hebrews being composed in Hebrew in his commentaries (Commentary on Isaiah 4, Commentary on Ezekiel 16:3, Commentary on Isaiah 40:9, Commentary on Micah 7:6) Jerome considered that the Gospel of the Hebrews, was written in the Chaldee and Syriac(Aramaic) language but in Hebrew script. Jerome claimed to have translated the whole into Greek (Against Pelagius 3:2) but this is doubted by many scholars since Jerome also made this claim about the Old Testament before he had actually done so. Jerome claimed that a Hebrew original of the Nazarene text was preserved in the library of Caesarea, which Pamphilus of Caesarea
had gathered.(Illustrious Men 2"). In recent years some modern scholars have given more credence to Jerome's testimony.
Jerome identifies the readers of this gospel as observant Jews, distinct from the culturally assimilated and Hellenized Jews, for whom the Greek Septuagint had been translated from Hebrew. It was used extensively by the followers of Hegesippus, Merinthus and Cerinthus as well as by the Ebionites and the Nazarenes.
According to Pantaenus, it was also in circulation in India, having been brought there by Bartholomew. Pantaenus became head of the School in Alexandria and was responsible for much of the Library in Caesarea. In this library was preserved a copy of the Gospel of the Hebrews. The Nazarenes of Beroea gave a copy to Jerome.
The title "The Gospel of the Hebrews" designates merely the class of readers among whom it circulated. They were Jewish Christians (or a particular sect of such) who still spoke the Aramaic language.
In the Catalog of Eusebius, only one Hebrew gospel is listed: "And among these some have placed also the Gospel of the Hebrews with which those of the Hebrews that have accepted Christ are especially delighted." (Church History, 3.25.5). Epiphanius mentions only one Hebrew gospel: "They [the Ebionites] call it the Gospel of the Hebrews for, in truth, Matthew alone in the New Covenant expounded and declared the Gospel in Hebrew using Hebrew script." (Panarion, 30.3.7)
(EvEb)". This, effectively, is the distinction observed by Hans Waitz
, Wilhelm Schneemelcher
and Philipp Vielhauer
in what is often termed the "standard" edition of the New Testament Apocrypha
. A notable supporter of this now traditional division into three is Albertus Klijn (1992) who he writes that "The presence of three Jewish Christian Gospels is an established fact." There are those who differ with this conclusion; for example Paul Foster (2008). Part of the reason for three Gospels is the presence of differences in the surviving fragments, particularly the presence of three separate accounts of Christ's baptism, while another factor was the scepticism towards the reliability of the evidence of Jerome
. However, Klauck also notes that "In more recent years (cf. [P. L.] Schmidt) in a pendulum swing away from this scepticism, there has been a tendency to regard Jerome as more trustworthy." With the result that the division of Jerome's testimony into 2: a Gospel of the Hebrews (EvHeb), a Gospel of the Nazaraeans (EvNaz), is less confident. This still leaves however the problem of the multiple accounts of Christ's baptism, which seem to require at least three sources. Craig A. Evans
(2005) views that it is probably more safe to divide the material into Origen's Gospel, Jerome's Gospel, Epiphanius' Gospel, etc.
Scholars do agree that the title, Gospel according to the Hebrews is not a scholarly neologism, nor is it simply a "hypothetical" gospel. They agree that its title was used in the Early Church as well as in the early church catalogs.
of Nicholson
(1879) claims two versions of Matthew, Greek and Hebrew, while that of James R. Edwards
(2009) is that the Jewish Christian Gospels preserve some of the source material of Gospel of Luke. These hypotheses are contested by scholars such as Hans-Josef Klauck
(2002) who writes, "the Gospel of the Hebrews is not to be equated with an Ur-Matthew."
Traditionally, although the Gospel is technically anonymous
, it was believed that the Gospel of Matthew
was the work of Saint Matthew, and scholars believed that it was a eyewitness account of the life of Jesus Christ. This is still the 'official' position of the Roman Catholic, Orthodox and Evangelical Churches. Indeed, Craig Blomberg
, F. F. Bruce
and Gregory Boyd maintain that the apostle Matthew did write 'his' gospel.They support their position by arguing that, as a former tax collector, Matthew would not have been an ideal person to falsify a gospel.
Nevertheless, most critical scholars
still reject Matthean authorship of the first Gospel. Some argue that an apostle and eyewitness of Jesus' ministry would not have used a secondary source, yet the first Gospel relies on Mark for much of its material.Others claim that the perspectives of the book show a fuller development of traditional material and of relations with the Jews than one might expect in an "early Gospel".
The two-source hypothesis
is the most commonly accepted solution to the synoptic problem. It argues that Matthew borrowed from two Greek sources, the Gospel of Mark
and a hypothetical sayings collection, known by scholars as Q. Therefore Canonical Matthew was composed in Greek at a later time than the Gospel of Mark. More importantly, it was probably not written by Matthew. According to Jerome, the Nazarenes and the Ebionites regarded their version of Matthew as the original (Commentary on Matthew 2).
Scholars of the Tübingen School such as Johann Gottfried Eichhorn
(d.1827), Christian Friedrich Weber
(1806), thought that the Gospel of the Hebrews may indeed be an authentic eyewitness account written by the Apostle Matthew himself. If this is the case, the Gospel of the Hebrews clearly has important data to contribute toward the solution of the synoptic problem. A study of the external evidence regarding this gospel shows that among the Nazarenes and Ebionites existed a gospel commonly called the Gospel of the Hebrews. It was written in Aramaic with Hebrew letters. Its authorship was attributed to St. Matthew. While Jerome regarded his Gospel of the Hebrews was with respect, the Jewish-Christian Gospels were generally regarded as heretical and corrupted texts. Nevertheless the ascription of the source of a Hebrew Gospel to the apostle Matthew was widespread and no Church Father attributes a Hebrew Gospel to anyone other than Matthew. Even Epiphanius, in criticizing the Gospel of the Ebionites
recognises the tradition that Matthew wrote a Gospel in Hebrew.
Needless to say, this position has been widely contested. Rudolf Handmann (1888) regarded the Gospel of the Ebionites
as a pasticcio which belongs with the dregs of the gospel tradition.
Modern scholars, at least until recently, have taken the position as per the Wilhelm Schneemelcher that there were at least three distinct Jewish Gospels:
The position of Parker (1940) and his followers is that there is only one Hebrew gospel, the Gospel of the Hebrews but that there were several editions of this one gospel in the Early Church.
Although there is still ongoing debate about the Jewish Christian Gospels and "only the very daring, nowadays, venture on speculations in regard to the Gospel of the Hebrews ", http://ext.sagepub.com/cgi/pdf_extract/39/10/437 most scholars agree with Schneemelcher
when he says, "Thus the number of Jewish Gospels -- whether there be one, two or three such gospels -- is uncertain, the identification of the several fragments is also uncertain and, finally the character and the relationship to one another of the several Jewish gospels is uncertain."
B. H. Streeter argued that a third source, referred to as M, and also hypothetical, lies behind the material in Matthew that has no parallel in Mark or Luke. Through the remainder of the 20th century there were various challenges and refinements of Streeter's hypothesis. In 1953, Parker posited an early version of Matthew (Aramaic M) as a primary source
. The Church Fathers
also wrote of such a source, called the Gospel of the Hebrews
Scholars agree that there is a connection between the Gospel of the Hebrews and Matthew, but critical scholars generally consider that the extant Gospel of the Hebrews to be translated from a Greek source text into Hebrew and back into Greek. One of the reasons for this view is the opinion that the 4th Century might offer more favourable circumstances for the circulation and perhaps the making of a Hebrew Gospel among Jews than the 1st or 2nd Century.
Although, as Hans-Josef Klauck
writes, "the Gospel of the Hebrews is not to be equated with an Ur-Matthew." A study of the external evidence regarding this gospel shows that among the Nazarenes and Ebionites existed a gospel commonly called the Gospel of the Hebrews. It was written in Aramaic with Hebrew letters. Its authorship was attributed to St. Matthew. While the Gospel of the Hebrews was still being circulated and read, the Church Fathers
referred to it always with respect, often with reverence. They accepted it as being the work of Matthew.
Although scholarly consensus still holds to Markan priority
, some modern scholars believe that the Gospel of the Hebrews was the second source used in the Gospel of Luke and helped form the basis for the Synoptic Tradition. They point out that in the first section of De Viris Illustribus (Jerome)
, we find the Gospel of Mark listed as the first gospel written, and thus the basis of later gospels. Following it should be Q. However, such a source document (quelle means "source") is absent from Jerome's list, nor is one mentioned by Jerome in his writings. Rather, the first seminal document is not Q but the Gospel of the Hebrews. In "the place of honor" that should be given "the phantom Q" we find a Hebrew usurper.
Scholarly consensus remains overwhelmingly in favor of Markan priority, and this consensus has not been seriously challenged by speculations surrounding the origins of the Hebrew Gospel. That no copy of either Q or the Hebrew Gospel exists makes the determination of their early role in the development of the Synoptic gospels highly conjectural. Nonetheless, arguments in favor of Q as a primary source for Matthew and Luke remain compelling.
, by adoption at his baptism
, being chosen because of his sinless devotion to the will of God. The Adoptionist view may date back almost to the time of Jesus reconciling the claims that Jesus was the Son of God
with the radical monotheism of Judaism. Both the primary gospels i.e. (the Gospel of the Hebrews and the Gospel of Mark) had similar adoptionist views of the incarnation, but the Gospel of the Hebrews was the most radical. Jesus was seen to be "adopted" at his baptism when the voice from heaven declared: "You are my beloved Son, this day have I begotten you"
By the end of the 2nd century, Adoptionism was declared a heresy and it was formally rejected by the First Council of Nicaea
(325), which wrote the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity
and identified Jesus as eternally begotten of God. The Roman Emperor Constantine
, fostered the faith as an imperial religion.
Although according to the Gospel of Matthew, the term Nazarene was applied to Jesus due to his living in a town named Nazareth
(Gospel of Matthew 2.23) and Paul was called a Nazarene by Tertullus in the Book of Acts, the sect of Nazarene
s is not heard of again till the 4th Century. Controversy over the existence of such a town, and whether it was founded by Nazarenes, continues. A town of Nazareth may have been founded as a place of gathering of nazarites from the Nazarene sect. The term "nazirite
" comes from the Hebrew word nazir meaning "consecrated" or "separated", exemplified by the story of Samson, Samuel, and David. The relationship between consecrated, anointed
, messiah
, baptized, and christened would indicate that "Jesus the Nazarite" and "Jesus the Christ" were the same person. A Nazarene warrior cult may have existed prior to Jesus, and may go back to the time of Judas Maccabeus
. After his death, it was the term used to identify the Jewish Sect that believed Jesus was the Messiah. When this group grew into the Gentile world, they became known as Christians. By the 4th century, Nazarenes were considered orthodox Christians who embraced the Jewish Law, but rejected Hebrew Heresies. The Nazarenes are generally accepted as being the first Christians who were led by James the Just
, who was said to be the brother of Jesus
. He led the Church from Jerusalem and had a special experience of the Risen Lord.
used only the Gospel of the Hebrews (Church History, 3.27.4) Epiphanius
stated that the Ebionites used a Gospel of the Hebrews which he considered was a corrupted version of Greek Matthew (Panarion, 30).
The origin of the name Ebionite (or Ebionaean) (Hippolytus Refutation of All Heresies 7 . 22) is debated. Tertullian
, Irenaeus
, Hippolytus of Rome, Epiphanius
, and Jerome
ascribed the movement to a heretic named Ebion or Hebion (Tertullian The Prescription Against Heretics 33, On the Flesh of Christ 14.18.; Irenaeus Against Heretics 5.1.3.; Hippolytus of Rome Refutation of All Heresies 7.23. - Heresy of Theodotus; and Epiphanius Heresies 30) Others claim the name Ebionite means "poor one" and is derived from Matthew 5:3, for they rejected material wealth. Eusebius and Origen
both claimed the Ebionites' appellation was a term of derision indicating a poverty in intellect, rather than material possessions. (Eusebius Church History 3.27.; Origen Origen de Principiis 4.22). Conflict grew between them and other Christians when the Ebionites failed to embrace the developing Church
doctrines of the Virgin birth and Jesus' divinity. They believed Jesus was begotten of God at his baptism.
Conflict also grew over the issue of the Mosaic law, which Hippolytus states that the Ebionites believed remained in full force (Refutation of All Heresies 7.22) They are said to have rejected Paul's teachings and used only one Gospel, the Gospel of the Hebrews.
http://books.google.com/books?id=TnddGYTT-JoC&pg=PA1835&dq=%22to+matthew%22++%22gospel+according+to+the+hebrews+was+not+identical%22&num=100&as_brr=3#v=onepage&q=%22to%20matthew%22%20%20%22gospel%20according%20to%20the%20hebrews%20was%20not%20identical%22&f=false
According to the 8th Century Stichometry of Nicephorus
the Gospel of the Hebrews was 2200 lines, just 300 lines shorter than Gospel of Matthew. Scholars have been able to study much of the theological structure because of the Fathers of the Early Church.
held a source he calls "the Gospel of the Hebrews" to be informative when he explains that there are many people with two names, that scripture calls Matthew “Levi” in the Gospel of Luke, but they are not the same person (Psalm Commentary 3)
(1879) noted the connection to the sinful woman in John's Gospel.
, as head of the Jerusalem church, and especially concentrates on arguing for obedience to Jewish law. The gospel contains an independent legend that the first resurrection appearance was witnessed by James. The gospel also recounts that James was present at the Last Supper
. The stories are in contradiction to the canonical gospels which recount that James and his brothers were not followers of Jesus prior to the Resurrection, which John 7:5 mentions such unbelief explicitly. At the Feast of Weeks, however, Judas the brother of James, is at least listed among the group of believers (Acts 1:14) Jude, in his own epistle, claims that he is the same "brother of James" (Jude 1) Paul would seem to provide the evidence that Jesus did, in fact, visit James after the resurrection (1 Corinthians 15:7) but after Cephas and the twelve, then more than five hundred "brethren" who were still alive at the time of Paul's writing: "After that, he was seen of James; then of all the apostles". During the beginning of Jesus's ministry, James did not believe Jesus was the Messiah; however, there was some great catalyst that changed his mind, for he became the leader of the Nazaraean community in Jerusalem and produced the Epistle of James
written before 61 C.E. When he was stoned by the Sanhedrin under the authority of Ananus, the son or grandson of Annas who had been responsible for bringing Jesus to trial (Josephus, Antiquities 20.9.200)
Eusebius quotes Hegesippus, who states: "This apostle was consecrated from his mother's womb. He drank neither wine nor fermented liquors, and abstained from animal food. A razor never came upon his head, he never anointed with oil, and never used a bath. He alone was allowed to enter the sanctuary. He never wore woolen, but linen garments [i.e. as the priests did]...And indeed, on account of his exceeding great piety, he was called the Just, and Oblias (or Zaddick and Ozleam) which signifies justice and protection of the people. Some of the seven sects [of Judaism], therefore, of the people, mentioned by me above in my Commentaries, asked him what was the door to Jesus? And he answered, 'that he was the Saviour.'. From which, some believed that Jesus is the Christ...".(Eusebius, Church History, 2.23) In the Gospel of the Hebrews it is written as follows:
The Gospel of the Hebrews states that when the Risen Lord came to those with Peter, Jesus said to them, “Take hold of me, handle me, and see that I am not a bodiless demon.” Jerome also points out that the Apostles thought the resurrected Jesus to be a spirit, for in the Gospel of the Hebrews Jesus says that he is not a “A bodiless demon”
(1879) & The Hebrew Gospel and the Development of the Synoptic Tradition by J. R. Edwards.
Church Fathers
The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, Christian Fathers, or Fathers of the Church were early and influential theologians, eminent Christian teachers and great bishops. Their scholarly works were used as a precedent for centuries to come...
.
This non-canonical
Canonical
Canonical is an adjective derived from canon. Canon comes from the greek word κανών kanon, "rule" or "measuring stick" , and is used in various meanings....
gospel
Gospel
A gospel is an account, often written, that describes the life of Jesus of Nazareth. In a more general sense the term "gospel" may refer to the good news message of the New Testament. It is primarily used in reference to the four canonical gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John...
gave an account of the life
New Testament view on Jesus' life
The four canonical gospels of the New Testament are the primary sources of information for the doctrinal Christian narrative of the life of Jesus. There is not a single New Testament "view" on the life of Jesus, the four Canonical gospels tell different but connected stories...
and ministry
Ministry of Jesus
In the Christian gospels, the Ministry of Jesus begins with his Baptism in the countryside of Judea, near the River Jordan and ends in Jerusalem, following the Last Supper with his disciples. The Gospel of Luke states that Jesus was "about 30 years of age" at the start of his ministry...
of Jesus of Nazareth detailing his story from the events of his Baptism
Baptism
In Christianity, baptism is for the majority the rite of admission , almost invariably with the use of water, into the Christian Church generally and also membership of a particular church tradition...
to his Resurrection
Resurrection of Jesus
The Christian belief in the resurrection of Jesus states that Jesus returned to bodily life on the third day following his death by crucifixion. It is a key element of Christian faith and theology and part of the Nicene Creed: "On the third day he rose again in fulfillment of the Scriptures"...
.
A major source regarding the Gospel is the testimony of Jerome
Jerome
Saint Jerome was a Roman Christian priest, confessor, theologian and historian, and who became a Doctor of the Church. He was the son of Eusebius, of the city of Stridon, which was on the border of Dalmatia and Pannonia...
who received a copy from a Nazarene
Nazarene (sect)
The Nazarene sect is used in two contexts:* Firstly of the New Testament early church where in Acts 24:5 Paul is accused before Felix at Caesarea by Tertullus of being "a ringleader of the sect of the Nazarenes."...
group while he was at Chalcis
Chalcis
Chalcis or Chalkida , the chief town of the island of Euboea in Greece, is situated on the strait of the Evripos at its narrowest point. The name is preserved from antiquity and is derived from the Greek χαλκός , though there is no trace of any mines in the area...
between 373 and 376. Jerome records that it was regarded by many of the Nazarenes and Ebionites as the original version of Matthew: "In evangelio quo utuntur Nazaraeni et Ebionitae, quod nuper in Graecum de Hebraeo sermone transtulimus, et quod vocatur a plerisque Matthaei authenticum."
Editions and translations
Critical editions of the Gospel of the Hebrews vary, but there is general agreement among modern scholars that seven quotations from Patristic sources are from a distinct Gospel of the Hebrews, although two of these are ambiguous. Hans WaitzHans Waitz
Johannes Waitz, also Hans Waitz, was a German Biblical scholar specializing in the New Testament Apocrypha and source-critical studies. He was Evangelical pastor in Darmstadt till 1927, and not to be confused with the Austrian Catholic bishop of the same name.He was the advocate of a Petrine source...
(1937) provides a list of the major German scholars who up to that date divide the Jewish-Christian Gospels
Jewish-Christian Gospels
Jewish-Christian Gospels are non-canonical Gospels used by various Jewish Christian groups that were declared heretical by other members of the Early Church. They are mentioned by Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Eusebius, Epiphanius and Jerome...
into different traditions, though Waitz himself argues for only two Gospels. There is now a tendency to reduce the traditional division of the Gospel of the Hebrews, Gospel of the Nazarenes and Gospel of the Ebionites
Gospel of the Ebionites
Gospel of the Ebionites is the conventional name given to the description by Epiphanius of Salamis of a gospel used by the Ebionites. All that is known of the gospel text consists of seven brief quotations found in Chapter 30 of a heresiology written by Epiphanius known as the Panarion...
to two Gospels, though Klauck (2003) notes that against this hypothesis, the material includes "three extra-canonical narratives of the baptism of Jesus which vary to such an extent that they cannot come from one or even two gospels alone."
The standard critical edition of the Gospel of the Hebrews is by Philipp Vielhauer, translated by George Ogg, in Hennecke and Schneemelcher's New Testament Apocrypha (1962), also reproduced in Cameron (1982) and Lapham (2003).
Language
Scholarship generally holds that it was probably composed in Egypt in the 2nd century and originally in Greek, though Jerome considered the copy he obtained to be an original composition in Hebrew (Against Pelagius 3.2).Patristic sources and testimony
There was a strong tradition in the early church, mentioned for by PapiasPapias
Papias was a bishop of the early Church, canonized as a saint. Eusebius of Caesarea calls him "Bishop of Hierapolis" which is 22 km from Laodicea and near Colossae Papias (writing in the first third of the 2nd century) was a bishop of the early Church, canonized as a saint. Eusebius of...
, Irenaeus, Origen
Origen
Origen , or Origen Adamantius, 184/5–253/4, was an early Christian Alexandrian scholar and theologian, and one of the most distinguished writers of the early Church. As early as the fourth century, his orthodoxy was suspect, in part because he believed in the pre-existence of souls...
, Eusebius, Epiphanius, and Jerome, that Matthew had written a gospel in the Hebrew language. Irenaeus, Epiphanius, and Jerome identify the Gospel of the Hebrews with this Hebrew gospel of Matthew.
Jerome
Jerome
Saint Jerome was a Roman Christian priest, confessor, theologian and historian, and who became a Doctor of the Church. He was the son of Eusebius, of the city of Stridon, which was on the border of Dalmatia and Pannonia...
(c.347–420) relates that the Nazarenes and Ebionites believed that the Gospel of the Hebrews was the original Gospel of Matthew (Commentary on Matthew 2 . 12) Epiphanius of Salamis
Epiphanius of Salamis
Epiphanius of Salamis was bishop of Salamis at the end of the 4th century. He is considered a saint and a Church Father by both the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic Churches. He gained a reputation as a strong defender of orthodoxy...
in the Panarion wrote that, "They [Jewish Christians] too accept Matthew's gospel and like the followers of Cerinthus and Merinthus, they use it alone. They call it the Gospel of the Hebrews, for in truth, Matthew alone of the New Covenant writers expounded and declared the gospel in Hebrew using Hebrew script." (Panarion, 30.3.7)
Papias, Bishop of Hierapolis in Asia Minor
Anatolia
Anatolia is a geographic and historical term denoting the westernmost protrusion of Asia, comprising the majority of the Republic of Turkey...
during the first half of the 2nd century, writes that Matthew composed the logia in the Hebrew tongue and each one interpreted them as he was able. He also notes that the story of the Sinful Woman was originally from the Gospel of the Hebrews. Apart from Papias' comment, we do not hear about the author of the Gospel until Irenaeus
Irenaeus
Saint Irenaeus , was Bishop of Lugdunum in Gaul, then a part of the Roman Empire . He was an early church father and apologist, and his writings were formative in the early development of Christian theology...
around 185 who remarks that Matthew issued a written Gospel of the Hebrews (Against Heresies 3.1.1) Pantaenus, Origen and other Church Fathers
Church Fathers
The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, Christian Fathers, or Fathers of the Church were early and influential theologians, eminent Christian teachers and great bishops. Their scholarly works were used as a precedent for centuries to come...
also believed Matthew wrote the Gospel of the Hebrews (Church History 5.10.3, 6.25.4) None of these Church Fathers asserted that Matthew wrote his Gospel in Greek.
Traditionally within orthodox Christianity, the Gospel of Matthew was believed to have been composed by Matthew with some believing it to be the first gospel written. This view is not widely held within contemporary Biblical studies. Most scholars believe that the author of the Gospel of Matthew made use of the Gospel of Mark and another source known as Q
Q source
The Q source is a hypothetical written source for the Gospel of Matthew and Gospel of Luke. Q is defined as the "common" material found in Matthew and Luke but not in the Gospel of Mark...
. This solution to the origin is known as the Two-source hypothesis
Two-source hypothesis
The Two-Source Hypothesis is an explanation for the synoptic problem, the pattern of similarities and differences between the three Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke. It posits that the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke were based on the Gospel of Mark and a lost, hypothetical sayings...
. For this and other reasons, the Gospel of Matthew was composed in Greek and not Hebrew as suggested by Papias.
Irenaeus believed Matthew issued a written Gospel of the Hebrews in their own language while Peter and Paul were preaching at Rome and laying the foundations of the Church (Against Heresies 3:1). According to Eusebius Hegesippus
Hegesippus (chronicler)
Saint Hegesippus , was a Christian chronicler of the early Church who may have been a Jewish convert and certainly wrote against heresies of the Gnostics and of Marcion...
said Matthew's Gospel was written in Syriac (Ecclesiastical History 3:22-24) a view Eusebius shared (Theophania 4:12). This is repeated in the Stichometry of Nicephorus
Stichometry of Nicephorus
The Stichometry of Nicephorus is a stichometry by Patriarch Nicephorus I of Constantinople. It is significant in that it counts the number of lines of various Christian texts, many of which were later suppressed by the church and lost...
(c.810). Epiphanius
Epiphanius of Salamis
Epiphanius of Salamis was bishop of Salamis at the end of the 4th century. He is considered a saint and a Church Father by both the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic Churches. He gained a reputation as a strong defender of orthodoxy...
wrote that the Ebionites used only the Gospel of the Hebrews, which was expounded and declared Hebrew using Hebrew script.
Jerome makes frequent reference to the Nazarene Gospel of the Hebrews being composed in Hebrew in his commentaries (Commentary on Isaiah 4, Commentary on Ezekiel 16:3, Commentary on Isaiah 40:9, Commentary on Micah 7:6) Jerome considered that the Gospel of the Hebrews, was written in the Chaldee and Syriac(Aramaic) language but in Hebrew script. Jerome claimed to have translated the whole into Greek (Against Pelagius 3:2) but this is doubted by many scholars since Jerome also made this claim about the Old Testament before he had actually done so. Jerome claimed that a Hebrew original of the Nazarene text was preserved in the library of Caesarea, which Pamphilus of Caesarea
Pamphilus of Caesarea
Saint Pamphilus , was a presbyter of Caesarea and chief among Catholic Biblical scholars of his generation...
had gathered.(Illustrious Men 2"). In recent years some modern scholars have given more credence to Jerome's testimony.
Jerome identifies the readers of this gospel as observant Jews, distinct from the culturally assimilated and Hellenized Jews, for whom the Greek Septuagint had been translated from Hebrew. It was used extensively by the followers of Hegesippus, Merinthus and Cerinthus as well as by the Ebionites and the Nazarenes.
According to Pantaenus, it was also in circulation in India, having been brought there by Bartholomew. Pantaenus became head of the School in Alexandria and was responsible for much of the Library in Caesarea. In this library was preserved a copy of the Gospel of the Hebrews. The Nazarenes of Beroea gave a copy to Jerome.
The title "The Gospel of the Hebrews" designates merely the class of readers among whom it circulated. They were Jewish Christians (or a particular sect of such) who still spoke the Aramaic language.
Patristic Testimony on Non-canonical status
Origen and Eusebius classed a Gospel of the Hebrews among the "disputed writings" which some reject, but which others class with the accepted books: "And among these some have also placed the Gospel according to the Hebrews, with which those Hebrews who accept Christ are especially delighted" (Church History III.xxv.5) Hence there were a body of Jewish Christians who regarded it as their authority regarding the life, work, and teaching of Jesus. Jerome often cites it as though it were a trustworthy source. Beyond this we know very little of its status.Patristic Names of Gospels
Different church fathers refer to a Gospel of the Hebrews, Gospel of the Apostles, Gospel of the Twelve Apostles as well as The Hebrew Gospel. To distinguish various texts modern scholars generally refer to the Gospels of the Hebrews, Nazarenes, Ebionites respectively.In the Catalog of Eusebius, only one Hebrew gospel is listed: "And among these some have placed also the Gospel of the Hebrews with which those of the Hebrews that have accepted Christ are especially delighted." (Church History, 3.25.5). Epiphanius mentions only one Hebrew gospel: "They [the Ebionites] call it the Gospel of the Hebrews for, in truth, Matthew alone in the New Covenant expounded and declared the Gospel in Hebrew using Hebrew script." (Panarion, 30.3.7)
Number of Jewish-Christian Gospels?
Since no complete text of any Jewish-Christian Gospel survives, a primary task of scholarship is determining how many distinct Gospels are indicated by the patristic evidence. Hans-Josef Klauck in Apocryphal gospels: an introduction (2003) notes that "it has become almost canonical in twentieth-century scholarship to speak of three Jewish-Christian gospels: a Gospel of the Hebrews (EvHeb), a Gospel of the Nazaraeans (EvNaz) and a Gospel of the EbionitesGospel of the Ebionites
Gospel of the Ebionites is the conventional name given to the description by Epiphanius of Salamis of a gospel used by the Ebionites. All that is known of the gospel text consists of seven brief quotations found in Chapter 30 of a heresiology written by Epiphanius known as the Panarion...
(EvEb)". This, effectively, is the distinction observed by Hans Waitz
Hans Waitz
Johannes Waitz, also Hans Waitz, was a German Biblical scholar specializing in the New Testament Apocrypha and source-critical studies. He was Evangelical pastor in Darmstadt till 1927, and not to be confused with the Austrian Catholic bishop of the same name.He was the advocate of a Petrine source...
, Wilhelm Schneemelcher
Wilhelm Schneemelcher
Wilhelm Schneemelcher was a German theologian and expert on the New Testament Apocrypha.He obtained through Hans Lietzmann a post researching Latin and Greek manuscripts at the Church Fathers Commission, however this came under the Prussian Academy of Sciences so in 1938 Schneemelcher was removed...
and Philipp Vielhauer
Philipp Vielhauer
Philipp Adam Christoph Vielhauer was a German Lutheran pastor, and scholar of early Christianity and the New Testament Apocrypha. He is notable for having been the first German scholar to recognise quotes of Pauline epistles in the Book of Acts.Philipp Vielhauer was born in Cameroon to Rev...
in what is often termed the "standard" edition of the New Testament Apocrypha
New Testament apocrypha
The New Testament apocrypha are a number of writings by early Christians that claim to be accounts of Jesus and his teachings, the nature of God, or the teachings of his apostles and of their lives. These writings often have links with books regarded as "canonical"...
. A notable supporter of this now traditional division into three is Albertus Klijn (1992) who he writes that "The presence of three Jewish Christian Gospels is an established fact." There are those who differ with this conclusion; for example Paul Foster (2008). Part of the reason for three Gospels is the presence of differences in the surviving fragments, particularly the presence of three separate accounts of Christ's baptism, while another factor was the scepticism towards the reliability of the evidence of Jerome
Jerome
Saint Jerome was a Roman Christian priest, confessor, theologian and historian, and who became a Doctor of the Church. He was the son of Eusebius, of the city of Stridon, which was on the border of Dalmatia and Pannonia...
. However, Klauck also notes that "In more recent years (cf. [P. L.] Schmidt) in a pendulum swing away from this scepticism, there has been a tendency to regard Jerome as more trustworthy." With the result that the division of Jerome's testimony into 2: a Gospel of the Hebrews (EvHeb), a Gospel of the Nazaraeans (EvNaz), is less confident. This still leaves however the problem of the multiple accounts of Christ's baptism, which seem to require at least three sources. Craig A. Evans
Craig A. Evans
Craig Alan Evans is a biblical scholar and author.He earned his Bachelor of Arts in history and philosophy from Claremont McKenna College, a Master of Divinity from Western Baptist Seminary in Portland, Oregon, and his Master of Arts and Ph.D...
(2005) views that it is probably more safe to divide the material into Origen's Gospel, Jerome's Gospel, Epiphanius' Gospel, etc.
Debate
The topic of the Gospel according to the Hebrews continues to be one of ongoing and heated debate.Scholars do agree that the title, Gospel according to the Hebrews is not a scholarly neologism, nor is it simply a "hypothetical" gospel. They agree that its title was used in the Early Church as well as in the early church catalogs.
Hebrew Gospel hypotheses
There are various hypotheses concerning the relation of the material preserved by Jerome to the New Testament. The Hebrew Gospel hypothesisHebrew Gospel hypothesis
The modern mainstream consensus is that all of the books of the New Testament including the Gospel of Matthew were written in a form of Koine Greek....
of Nicholson
Edward Nicholson (librarian)
Edward Williams Byron Nicholson was an author and Bodley's Librarian, the head of the Bodleian Library at the University of Oxford, from 1882 until his death in 1912.-Early life and career:...
(1879) claims two versions of Matthew, Greek and Hebrew, while that of James R. Edwards
James R. Edwards
James R. Edwards is an American New Testament scholar and minister of the Presbyterian Church.In 1997 he joined the faculty at Whitworth University, Spokane where he is currently Bruner-Welch Professor of Theology. In 2009 he advanced a "controversial" theory that the synoptic Gospels are partly...
(2009) is that the Jewish Christian Gospels preserve some of the source material of Gospel of Luke. These hypotheses are contested by scholars such as Hans-Josef Klauck
Hans-Josef Klauck
Hans-Josef Klauck is the Naomi Shenstone Donnelley Professor of New Testament and Early Christian Literature in the University of Chicago Divinity School...
(2002) who writes, "the Gospel of the Hebrews is not to be equated with an Ur-Matthew."
Traditionally, although the Gospel is technically anonymous
Anonymous work
Anonymous works are works, such as art or literature, that have an anonymous, undisclosed, or unknown creator or author. In the United States it is legally defined as "a work on the copies or phonorecords of which no natural person is identified as author."...
, it was believed that the Gospel of Matthew
Gospel of Matthew
The Gospel According to Matthew is one of the four canonical gospels, one of the three synoptic gospels, and the first book of the New Testament. It tells of the life, ministry, death, and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth...
was the work of Saint Matthew, and scholars believed that it was a eyewitness account of the life of Jesus Christ. This is still the 'official' position of the Roman Catholic, Orthodox and Evangelical Churches. Indeed, Craig Blomberg
Craig Blomberg
Craig L. Blomberg is an American New Testament scholar. Since 1986 he has been Distinguished Professor of the New Testament at Denver Seminary in Colorado.-Life:...
, F. F. Bruce
F. F. Bruce
Frederick Fyvie Bruce was a Biblical scholar and one of the founders of the modern evangelical understanding of the Bible...
and Gregory Boyd maintain that the apostle Matthew did write 'his' gospel.They support their position by arguing that, as a former tax collector, Matthew would not have been an ideal person to falsify a gospel.
Nevertheless, most critical scholars
Biblical criticism
Biblical criticism is the scholarly "study and investigation of Biblical writings that seeks to make discerning judgments about these writings." It asks when and where a particular text originated; how, why, by whom, for whom, and in what circumstances it was produced; what influences were at work...
still reject Matthean authorship of the first Gospel. Some argue that an apostle and eyewitness of Jesus' ministry would not have used a secondary source, yet the first Gospel relies on Mark for much of its material.Others claim that the perspectives of the book show a fuller development of traditional material and of relations with the Jews than one might expect in an "early Gospel".
The two-source hypothesis
Two-source hypothesis
The Two-Source Hypothesis is an explanation for the synoptic problem, the pattern of similarities and differences between the three Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke. It posits that the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke were based on the Gospel of Mark and a lost, hypothetical sayings...
is the most commonly accepted solution to the synoptic problem. It argues that Matthew borrowed from two Greek sources, the Gospel of Mark
Gospel of Mark
The Gospel According to Mark , commonly shortened to the Gospel of Mark or simply Mark, is the second book of the New Testament. This canonical account of the life of Jesus of Nazareth is one of the three synoptic gospels. It was thought to be an epitome, which accounts for its place as the second...
and a hypothetical sayings collection, known by scholars as Q. Therefore Canonical Matthew was composed in Greek at a later time than the Gospel of Mark. More importantly, it was probably not written by Matthew. According to Jerome, the Nazarenes and the Ebionites regarded their version of Matthew as the original (Commentary on Matthew 2).
Scholars of the Tübingen School such as Johann Gottfried Eichhorn
Johann Gottfried Eichhorn
Johann Gottfried Eichhorn was a German Protestant theologian of Enlightenment and early orientalist.-Education and early career:...
(d.1827), Christian Friedrich Weber
Christian Friedrich Weber
Christian Friedrich Weber was a German New Testament scholar of the Tübingen school.He was repentant to Hölderlin who called him "the best man in the world" and deacon in Winnenden.-References:...
(1806), thought that the Gospel of the Hebrews may indeed be an authentic eyewitness account written by the Apostle Matthew himself. If this is the case, the Gospel of the Hebrews clearly has important data to contribute toward the solution of the synoptic problem. A study of the external evidence regarding this gospel shows that among the Nazarenes and Ebionites existed a gospel commonly called the Gospel of the Hebrews. It was written in Aramaic with Hebrew letters. Its authorship was attributed to St. Matthew. While Jerome regarded his Gospel of the Hebrews was with respect, the Jewish-Christian Gospels were generally regarded as heretical and corrupted texts. Nevertheless the ascription of the source of a Hebrew Gospel to the apostle Matthew was widespread and no Church Father attributes a Hebrew Gospel to anyone other than Matthew. Even Epiphanius, in criticizing the Gospel of the Ebionites
Gospel of the Ebionites
Gospel of the Ebionites is the conventional name given to the description by Epiphanius of Salamis of a gospel used by the Ebionites. All that is known of the gospel text consists of seven brief quotations found in Chapter 30 of a heresiology written by Epiphanius known as the Panarion...
recognises the tradition that Matthew wrote a Gospel in Hebrew.
Needless to say, this position has been widely contested. Rudolf Handmann (1888) regarded the Gospel of the Ebionites
Gospel of the Ebionites
Gospel of the Ebionites is the conventional name given to the description by Epiphanius of Salamis of a gospel used by the Ebionites. All that is known of the gospel text consists of seven brief quotations found in Chapter 30 of a heresiology written by Epiphanius known as the Panarion...
as a pasticcio which belongs with the dregs of the gospel tradition.
Modern scholars, at least until recently, have taken the position as per the Wilhelm Schneemelcher that there were at least three distinct Jewish Gospels:
- The Gospel of the Nazarenes, which was read in Semitic speech and used among the Nazarenes and was similar to canonical Matthew.
- The Gospel of the Ebionites, which was used by heretical Jewish Christians.
- The Gospel of the Hebrews, which has no special relationship to any one of the canonical gospels, but contains syncretistic elements, and shows the heretical character of the Jewish Christian.
The position of Parker (1940) and his followers is that there is only one Hebrew gospel, the Gospel of the Hebrews but that there were several editions of this one gospel in the Early Church.
Although there is still ongoing debate about the Jewish Christian Gospels and "only the very daring, nowadays, venture on speculations in regard to the Gospel of the Hebrews ", http://ext.sagepub.com/cgi/pdf_extract/39/10/437 most scholars agree with Schneemelcher
Wilhelm Schneemelcher
Wilhelm Schneemelcher was a German theologian and expert on the New Testament Apocrypha.He obtained through Hans Lietzmann a post researching Latin and Greek manuscripts at the Church Fathers Commission, however this came under the Prussian Academy of Sciences so in 1938 Schneemelcher was removed...
when he says, "Thus the number of Jewish Gospels -- whether there be one, two or three such gospels -- is uncertain, the identification of the several fragments is also uncertain and, finally the character and the relationship to one another of the several Jewish gospels is uncertain."
B. H. Streeter argued that a third source, referred to as M, and also hypothetical, lies behind the material in Matthew that has no parallel in Mark or Luke. Through the remainder of the 20th century there were various challenges and refinements of Streeter's hypothesis. In 1953, Parker posited an early version of Matthew (Aramaic M) as a primary source
Primary source
Primary source is a term used in a number of disciplines to describe source material that is closest to the person, information, period, or idea being studied....
. The Church Fathers
Church Fathers
The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, Christian Fathers, or Fathers of the Church were early and influential theologians, eminent Christian teachers and great bishops. Their scholarly works were used as a precedent for centuries to come...
also wrote of such a source, called the Gospel of the Hebrews
Scholars agree that there is a connection between the Gospel of the Hebrews and Matthew, but critical scholars generally consider that the extant Gospel of the Hebrews to be translated from a Greek source text into Hebrew and back into Greek. One of the reasons for this view is the opinion that the 4th Century might offer more favourable circumstances for the circulation and perhaps the making of a Hebrew Gospel among Jews than the 1st or 2nd Century.
Although, as Hans-Josef Klauck
Hans-Josef Klauck
Hans-Josef Klauck is the Naomi Shenstone Donnelley Professor of New Testament and Early Christian Literature in the University of Chicago Divinity School...
writes, "the Gospel of the Hebrews is not to be equated with an Ur-Matthew." A study of the external evidence regarding this gospel shows that among the Nazarenes and Ebionites existed a gospel commonly called the Gospel of the Hebrews. It was written in Aramaic with Hebrew letters. Its authorship was attributed to St. Matthew. While the Gospel of the Hebrews was still being circulated and read, the Church Fathers
Church Fathers
The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, Christian Fathers, or Fathers of the Church were early and influential theologians, eminent Christian teachers and great bishops. Their scholarly works were used as a precedent for centuries to come...
referred to it always with respect, often with reverence. They accepted it as being the work of Matthew.
Although scholarly consensus still holds to Markan priority
Markan priority
Markan priority is the hypothesis that the Gospel of Mark was the first written of the three Synoptic Gospels, and that the two other synoptic evangelists, Matthew and Luke, used Mark's Gospel as one of their sources. The theory of Markan priority is today accepted by the majority of New Testament...
, some modern scholars believe that the Gospel of the Hebrews was the second source used in the Gospel of Luke and helped form the basis for the Synoptic Tradition. They point out that in the first section of De Viris Illustribus (Jerome)
De Viris Illustribus (Jerome)
De viris illustribus is a collection of short biographies of 135 authors, written in Latin, by the 4th century Latin Church Father Jerome. He completed this work at Bethlehem in 392-3 CE. The work consists of a prologue plus 135 chapters, each consisting of a brief biography. Jerome himself is...
, we find the Gospel of Mark listed as the first gospel written, and thus the basis of later gospels. Following it should be Q. However, such a source document (quelle means "source") is absent from Jerome's list, nor is one mentioned by Jerome in his writings. Rather, the first seminal document is not Q but the Gospel of the Hebrews. In "the place of honor" that should be given "the phantom Q" we find a Hebrew usurper.
Scholarly consensus remains overwhelmingly in favor of Markan priority, and this consensus has not been seriously challenged by speculations surrounding the origins of the Hebrew Gospel. That no copy of either Q or the Hebrew Gospel exists makes the determination of their early role in the development of the Synoptic gospels highly conjectural. Nonetheless, arguments in favor of Q as a primary source for Matthew and Luke remain compelling.
Allegations of deliberate suppression of the Hebrew Gospel
It has been claimed that the rivalry between Gentile Christians and Jewish Christians brought about the intentional destruction of Hebrew texts. The doctrinal reason centered on Adoptionism. This theology was a minority Hebrew Christian belief that Jesus was merely human, being born of a physical union between Joseph and Mary. He only became divineDivinity
Divinity and divine are broadly applied but loosely defined terms, used variously within different faiths and belief systems — and even by different individuals within a given faith — to refer to some transcendent or transcendental power or deity, or its attributes or manifestations in...
, by adoption at his baptism
Baptism of Jesus
The baptism of Jesus marks the beginning of Jesus Christ's public ministry. This event is recorded in the Canonical Gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke. In John 1:29-33 rather than a direct narrative, the Baptist bears witness to the episode...
, being chosen because of his sinless devotion to the will of God. The Adoptionist view may date back almost to the time of Jesus reconciling the claims that Jesus was the Son of God
Son of God
"Son of God" is a phrase which according to most Christian denominations, Trinitarian in belief, refers to the relationship between Jesus and God, specifically as "God the Son"...
with the radical monotheism of Judaism. Both the primary gospels i.e. (the Gospel of the Hebrews and the Gospel of Mark) had similar adoptionist views of the incarnation, but the Gospel of the Hebrews was the most radical. Jesus was seen to be "adopted" at his baptism when the voice from heaven declared: "You are my beloved Son, this day have I begotten you"
By the end of the 2nd century, Adoptionism was declared a heresy and it was formally rejected by the First Council of Nicaea
First Council of Nicaea
The First Council of Nicaea was a council of Christian bishops convened in Nicaea in Bithynia by the Roman Emperor Constantine I in AD 325...
(325), which wrote the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity
Nicene Creed
The Nicene Creed is the creed or profession of faith that is most widely used in Christian liturgy. It is called Nicene because, in its original form, it was adopted in the city of Nicaea by the first ecumenical council, which met there in the year 325.The Nicene Creed has been normative to the...
and identified Jesus as eternally begotten of God. The Roman Emperor Constantine
Constantine I
Constantine the Great , also known as Constantine I or Saint Constantine, was Roman Emperor from 306 to 337. Well known for being the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity, Constantine and co-Emperor Licinius issued the Edict of Milan in 313, which proclaimed religious tolerance of all...
, fostered the faith as an imperial religion.
Nazarene communities
Jerome obtained his Hebrew text of Gospel of Matthew from Nazarenes (Jerome, On Illustrious Men, 2).Although according to the Gospel of Matthew, the term Nazarene was applied to Jesus due to his living in a town named Nazareth
Nazareth
Nazareth is the largest city in the North District of Israel. Known as "the Arab capital of Israel," the population is made up predominantly of Palestinian Arab citizens of Israel...
(Gospel of Matthew 2.23) and Paul was called a Nazarene by Tertullus in the Book of Acts, the sect of Nazarene
Nazarene (sect)
The Nazarene sect is used in two contexts:* Firstly of the New Testament early church where in Acts 24:5 Paul is accused before Felix at Caesarea by Tertullus of being "a ringleader of the sect of the Nazarenes."...
s is not heard of again till the 4th Century. Controversy over the existence of such a town, and whether it was founded by Nazarenes, continues. A town of Nazareth may have been founded as a place of gathering of nazarites from the Nazarene sect. The term "nazirite
Nazirite
In the Hebrew Bible, a nazirite or nazarite, , refers to one who voluntarily took a vow described in . The term "nazirite" comes from the Hebrew word nazir meaning "consecrated" or "separated"...
" comes from the Hebrew word nazir meaning "consecrated" or "separated", exemplified by the story of Samson, Samuel, and David. The relationship between consecrated, anointed
Anointing
To anoint is to pour or smear with perfumed oil, milk, water, melted butter or other substances, a process employed ritually by many religions. People and things are anointed to symbolize the introduction of a sacramental or divine influence, a holy emanation, spirit, power or God...
, messiah
Messiah
A messiah is a redeemer figure expected or foretold in one form or another by a religion. Slightly more widely, a messiah is any redeemer figure. Messianic beliefs or theories generally relate to eschatological improvement of the state of humanity or the world, in other words the World to...
, baptized, and christened would indicate that "Jesus the Nazarite" and "Jesus the Christ" were the same person. A Nazarene warrior cult may have existed prior to Jesus, and may go back to the time of Judas Maccabeus
Judas Maccabeus
Judah Maccabee was a Kohen and a son of the Jewish priest Mattathias...
. After his death, it was the term used to identify the Jewish Sect that believed Jesus was the Messiah. When this group grew into the Gentile world, they became known as Christians. By the 4th century, Nazarenes were considered orthodox Christians who embraced the Jewish Law, but rejected Hebrew Heresies. The Nazarenes are generally accepted as being the first Christians who were led by James the Just
James the Just
James , first Bishop of Jerusalem, who died in 62 AD, was an important figure in Early Christianity...
, who was said to be the brother of Jesus
Jesus
Jesus of Nazareth , commonly referred to as Jesus Christ or simply as Jesus or Christ, is the central figure of Christianity...
. He led the Church from Jerusalem and had a special experience of the Risen Lord.
Ebionite communities
Irenaeus wrote that they used only Matthew's Gospel (Against Heresies, 1.26.2) and, Eusebius wrote that the EbionitesEbionites
Ebionites, or Ebionaioi, , is a patristic term referring to a Jewish Christian sect or sects that existed during the first centuries of the Christian Era. They regarded Jesus as the Messiah and insisted on the necessity of following Jewish religious law and rites...
used only the Gospel of the Hebrews (Church History, 3.27.4) Epiphanius
Epiphanius of Salamis
Epiphanius of Salamis was bishop of Salamis at the end of the 4th century. He is considered a saint and a Church Father by both the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic Churches. He gained a reputation as a strong defender of orthodoxy...
stated that the Ebionites used a Gospel of the Hebrews which he considered was a corrupted version of Greek Matthew (Panarion, 30).
The origin of the name Ebionite (or Ebionaean) (Hippolytus Refutation of All Heresies 7 . 22) is debated. Tertullian
Tertullian
Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus, anglicised as Tertullian , was a prolific early Christian author from Carthage in the Roman province of Africa. He is the first Christian author to produce an extensive corpus of Latin Christian literature. He also was a notable early Christian apologist and...
, Irenaeus
Irenaeus
Saint Irenaeus , was Bishop of Lugdunum in Gaul, then a part of the Roman Empire . He was an early church father and apologist, and his writings were formative in the early development of Christian theology...
, Hippolytus of Rome, Epiphanius
Epiphanius of Salamis
Epiphanius of Salamis was bishop of Salamis at the end of the 4th century. He is considered a saint and a Church Father by both the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic Churches. He gained a reputation as a strong defender of orthodoxy...
, and Jerome
Jerome
Saint Jerome was a Roman Christian priest, confessor, theologian and historian, and who became a Doctor of the Church. He was the son of Eusebius, of the city of Stridon, which was on the border of Dalmatia and Pannonia...
ascribed the movement to a heretic named Ebion or Hebion (Tertullian The Prescription Against Heretics 33, On the Flesh of Christ 14.18.; Irenaeus Against Heretics 5.1.3.; Hippolytus of Rome Refutation of All Heresies 7.23. - Heresy of Theodotus; and Epiphanius Heresies 30) Others claim the name Ebionite means "poor one" and is derived from Matthew 5:3, for they rejected material wealth. Eusebius and Origen
Origen
Origen , or Origen Adamantius, 184/5–253/4, was an early Christian Alexandrian scholar and theologian, and one of the most distinguished writers of the early Church. As early as the fourth century, his orthodoxy was suspect, in part because he believed in the pre-existence of souls...
both claimed the Ebionites' appellation was a term of derision indicating a poverty in intellect, rather than material possessions. (Eusebius Church History 3.27.; Origen Origen de Principiis 4.22). Conflict grew between them and other Christians when the Ebionites failed to embrace the developing Church
Christian Church
The Christian Church is the assembly or association of followers of Jesus Christ. The Greek term ἐκκλησία that in its appearances in the New Testament is usually translated as "church" basically means "assembly"...
doctrines of the Virgin birth and Jesus' divinity. They believed Jesus was begotten of God at his baptism.
Conflict also grew over the issue of the Mosaic law, which Hippolytus states that the Ebionites believed remained in full force (Refutation of All Heresies 7.22) They are said to have rejected Paul's teachings and used only one Gospel, the Gospel of the Hebrews.
Content
According to James Hasting's Encyclopædia of religion and ethics (1914) the presentation in the Gospel of the Hebrews is lifelike, Jewish, and primitive, sometimes bordering on the grotesque and drawing near to the apocalyptic texts. The gospel does not bear the marks of having been constructed to inculcate any particular theological tenets, with the exception its Jewish view as to the origin and nature of Christ. It is, in the main, a simple historical narrative whose purpose seems to have been to preserve the living, evangelical tradition for present and future use. Although the Gospel of the Hebrews was not identical to the Greek Gospel of Matthew found in the Bible, they were similar.http://books.google.com/books?id=TnddGYTT-JoC&pg=PA1835&dq=%22to+matthew%22++%22gospel+according+to+the+hebrews+was+not+identical%22&num=100&as_brr=3#v=onepage&q=%22to%20matthew%22%20%20%22gospel%20according%20to%20the%20hebrews%20was%20not%20identical%22&f=false
According to the 8th Century Stichometry of Nicephorus
Stichometry of Nicephorus
The Stichometry of Nicephorus is a stichometry by Patriarch Nicephorus I of Constantinople. It is significant in that it counts the number of lines of various Christian texts, many of which were later suppressed by the church and lost...
the Gospel of the Hebrews was 2200 lines, just 300 lines shorter than Gospel of Matthew. Scholars have been able to study much of the theological structure because of the Fathers of the Early Church.
Matthew and Levi
Didymus the BlindDidymus the Blind
Didymus the Blind was a Coptic Church theologian of Alexandria, whose famous Catechetical School he led for about half a century. He became blind at a very young age, and therefore ignorant of the rudiments of learning...
held a source he calls "the Gospel of the Hebrews" to be informative when he explains that there are many people with two names, that scripture calls Matthew “Levi” in the Gospel of Luke, but they are not the same person (Psalm Commentary 3)
Holy Spirit
Within Judaism, the Shekinah (or "visible" cloud of the Presence) is a feminine word, thought to be Yahvah's feminine aspect; therefore, they called the Spirit the "mother". Thus in the Gospel of the Hebrews we should not be surprised, that after the temptation of Jesus it says, “Even so did my Mother, the Holy Spirit, took me by one of my hairs, and carried me to the great mountain Tabor." It should also be noted that “Spirit” in Hebrew is feminine, while in Latin it is masculine and in Greek it is neuter.Brotherly love
This is an important theme among Hebrew Christians. In the Gospel of the Hebrews one of the greatest sins is, "To grieve the spirit of one's brother" and we also read that the Lord spoke to his disciples saying, "And never be joyful except when you look on your brother with love." (Jerome Commentary on Ezekiel 18.7 Commentary on Ephesians 5.4)The rich young man
In the Gospel of the Hebrews:- The second rich youth said to him, “Rabbi, what good thing can I do and live?” Jesus replied, “Fulfill the law and the prophets.” “I have,” was the response Jesus said, “Go, sell all that you have and distribute to the poor; and come, follow me.” The youth began to fidget, for it did not please him. And the Lord said, “How can you say, I have fulfilled the law and the prophets, when it is written in the law: 'You shall love your neighbor as yourself,' and many of your brothers, sons of Abraham, are covered with filth, dying of hunger, and your house is full of many good things, none of which goes out to them?” And he turned and said to Simon, his disciple, who was sitting by Him, “Simon, son of Jonah, it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for the rich to enter the Kingdom of Heaven.” (Origen Commentary on Matthew 15.14).
The sinful women
Papias tells us that the Gospel of the Hebrews also gives story of a woman accused of many sins before the Lord. Lyman AbbottLyman Abbott
Lyman Abbott was an American Congregationalist theologian, editor, and author.-Early years:Lyman Abbott was born at Roxbury, Massachusetts on December 18, 1835, the son of the prolific author, educator and historian Jacob Abbott...
(1879) noted the connection to the sinful woman in John's Gospel.
Emphasis on James
This Gospel puts a particular emphasis on James the JustJames the Just
James , first Bishop of Jerusalem, who died in 62 AD, was an important figure in Early Christianity...
, as head of the Jerusalem church, and especially concentrates on arguing for obedience to Jewish law. The gospel contains an independent legend that the first resurrection appearance was witnessed by James. The gospel also recounts that James was present at the Last Supper
Last Supper
The Last Supper is the final meal that, according to Christian belief, Jesus shared with his Twelve Apostles in Jerusalem before his crucifixion. The Last Supper provides the scriptural basis for the Eucharist, also known as "communion" or "the Lord's Supper".The First Epistle to the Corinthians is...
. The stories are in contradiction to the canonical gospels which recount that James and his brothers were not followers of Jesus prior to the Resurrection, which John 7:5 mentions such unbelief explicitly. At the Feast of Weeks, however, Judas the brother of James, is at least listed among the group of believers (Acts 1:14) Jude, in his own epistle, claims that he is the same "brother of James" (Jude 1) Paul would seem to provide the evidence that Jesus did, in fact, visit James after the resurrection (1 Corinthians 15:7) but after Cephas and the twelve, then more than five hundred "brethren" who were still alive at the time of Paul's writing: "After that, he was seen of James; then of all the apostles". During the beginning of Jesus's ministry, James did not believe Jesus was the Messiah; however, there was some great catalyst that changed his mind, for he became the leader of the Nazaraean community in Jerusalem and produced the Epistle of James
Epistle of James
The Epistle of James, usually referred to simply as James, is a book in the New Testament. The author identifies himself as "James, a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ", with "the earliest extant manuscripts of James usually dated to mid-to-late third century."There are four views...
written before 61 C.E. When he was stoned by the Sanhedrin under the authority of Ananus, the son or grandson of Annas who had been responsible for bringing Jesus to trial (Josephus, Antiquities 20.9.200)
Eusebius quotes Hegesippus, who states: "This apostle was consecrated from his mother's womb. He drank neither wine nor fermented liquors, and abstained from animal food. A razor never came upon his head, he never anointed with oil, and never used a bath. He alone was allowed to enter the sanctuary. He never wore woolen, but linen garments [i.e. as the priests did]...And indeed, on account of his exceeding great piety, he was called the Just, and Oblias (or Zaddick and Ozleam) which signifies justice and protection of the people. Some of the seven sects [of Judaism], therefore, of the people, mentioned by me above in my Commentaries, asked him what was the door to Jesus? And he answered, 'that he was the Saviour.'. From which, some believed that Jesus is the Christ...".(Eusebius, Church History, 2.23) In the Gospel of the Hebrews it is written as follows:
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- Now the Lord, when he had given the linen cloth to the servant of the priest, went to James and appeared to him, for James had sworn that he would not eat bread from that hour in which he had drunk the Lord's cup until he should see him risen from among them that sleep. And Lord says, "Bring a table and bread." And it is added, "He took bread and blessed and broke and gave it to James the Just and said to him, "My brother, eat your bread, for the Son of man is risen from among them that sleep."(On Illustrious Men, 2).
"A bodiless demon"
The gospel quotation found in the letter of Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans may be one of the oldest recorded sayings of Jesus. An Exegesis of the Sayings of the Lord by means of an in-depth analysis of the available Patristic evidence as well as a comparison with the Hebrew Gospel tradition, leads to this conclusion.The Gospel of the Hebrews states that when the Risen Lord came to those with Peter, Jesus said to them, “Take hold of me, handle me, and see that I am not a bodiless demon.” Jerome also points out that the Apostles thought the resurrected Jesus to be a spirit, for in the Gospel of the Hebrews Jesus says that he is not a “A bodiless demon”
Comparison chart
The material in the Comparison Chart of the major gospels is from the Gospel Parallels by B. H. Throckmorton, The five Gospels by R. W. Funk, The Gospel According to the Hebrews by NicholsonEdward Nicholson (librarian)
Edward Williams Byron Nicholson was an author and Bodley's Librarian, the head of the Bodleian Library at the University of Oxford, from 1882 until his death in 1912.-Early life and career:...
(1879) & The Hebrew Gospel and the Development of the Synoptic Tradition by J. R. Edwards.
| Item | Matthew, Mark, Luke | John | Thomas | 3 Jewish-Christian Gospels | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| New Covenant | The central theme of the Gospels – Love God with all your heart and your neighbor as yourself | The central theme – Love is the New Commandment given by Jesus | Secret knowledge, love your friends | The central theme – Love one another (Jerome, Commentary on Ephesians) | |
| Forgiveness | Very important - particularly in Matthew and Luke | Assumed | Not mentioned | Very important - Forgiveness is a central theme and this gospel goes into the greatest detail (Jerome, Against Pelagius 3.2) | |
| The Lord's Prayer | In Matthew & Luke but not Mark | Not mentioned | Not mentioned | Important - “mahar” or "tomorrow" | |
| Love & the poor | Very Important - The rich young man | Assumed | Important | Very important - The rich young man (Origen, Commentary on Matthew 15:14) | |
| Jesus starts his ministry | Jesus meets John the Baptist and is baptized | Jesus meets John the Baptist | Only speaks of John the Baptist | Jesus meets John the Baptist and is baptized. This gospel goes into the greatest detail | |
| Disciples-number | Twelve | Twelve | not mentioned | Twelve | |
| Disciples-inner circle | Peter, Andrew, James & John | Peter, Andrew, James & the Beloved Disciple | Peter | Peter, Andrew James & John | |
| Disciples-others | Philip, Bartholomew, Matthew, Thomas, James, Simon the Zealot, Jude Thaddaeus, & Judas |
Philip, Nathanael, Matthew, Thomas, James, Simon the Zealot, Jude Thaddaeus & Judas |
Matthew, Thomas, James the Just (Brother of Jesus) |
Matthew, James the Just (Brother of Jesus), Simon the Zealot, Thaddaeus, Judas |
|
| Possible Authors | Unknown; Mark the Evangelist Mark the Evangelist Mark the Evangelist is the traditional author of the Gospel of Mark. He is one of the Seventy Disciples of Christ, and the founder of the Church of Alexandria, one of the original four main sees of Christianity.... & Luke the Evangelist Luke the Evangelist Luke the Evangelist was an Early Christian writer whom Church Fathers such as Jerome and Eusebius said was the author of the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles... |
The Beloved Disciple | Thomas | Matthew the Evangelist Matthew the Evangelist Matthew the Evangelist was, according to the Bible, one of the twelve Apostles of Jesus and one of the four Evangelists.-Identity:... |
|
| Virgin birth account | In Matthew & Luke, but not Mark | Not mentioned | Not mentioned | Not mentioned | |
| Jesus' baptism | Described | Not Mentioned | N/A | Described great detail | |
| Preaching style | Brief one-liners; parables | Essay format, Midrash | Sayings, parables | Brief one-liners; parables | |
| Storytelling | Parables | Figurative language & Metaphor | Gnostic, hidden, parables | Parables | |
| Jesus' theology | 1st Century liberal Judaism. | Critical of Jewish Authorities | Gnostic | 1st Century Judaism | |
| Miracles | Many miracles | Seven Signs | N/A | Fewer but more credible miracles (Jerome, Commentary on Matthew) | |
| Duration of ministry | 1 year | 3 years (Multiple Passovers) | N/A | 1 year | |
| Location of ministry | Mainly Galilee | Mainly Judea, near Jerusalem | N/A | Mainly Galilee | |
| Passover meal | Body & Blood = Bread and wine | Interrupts meal for foot washing | N/A | Hebrew Passover is celebrated but details are N/A (Panarion 30:22) | |
| Burial shroud | A single piece of cloth | Multiple pieces of cloth | N/A | Given to the High Priest (On Illustrious Men, 2) | |
| Resurrection | Mary and the Women are the first to learn Jesus has arisen | John adds detailed account of Mary's experience of the Resurrection | Not Applicable as Gospel of Thomas is a collection of the "sayings" of Jesus, not the events of his life | In the Gospel of the Hebrews is the unique account of Jesus appearing to his brother, James the Just James the Just James , first Bishop of Jerusalem, who died in 62 AD, was an important figure in Early Christianity... . |
See also
- Jewish-Christian GospelsJewish-Christian GospelsJewish-Christian Gospels are non-canonical Gospels used by various Jewish Christian groups that were declared heretical by other members of the Early Church. They are mentioned by Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Eusebius, Epiphanius and Jerome...
- Gospel of the EbionitesGospel of the EbionitesGospel of the Ebionites is the conventional name given to the description by Epiphanius of Salamis of a gospel used by the Ebionites. All that is known of the gospel text consists of seven brief quotations found in Chapter 30 of a heresiology written by Epiphanius known as the Panarion...
- Gospel of the NazoraeansGospel of the NazoraeansThe Gospel of the Nazarenes is the traditional but hypothetical name given by some scholars to distinguish some of the references to, or citations of, non-canonical Jewish-Christian Gospels extant in patristic writings from other citations believed to derive from different Gospels.-Collation into...